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SUPERVISED STUDY 



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THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS 
ATLANTA • SAN FKANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limitbd 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MBLBOURNB 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TOaONTO 



SUPERVISED STUDY 



A DISCUSSION OF THE STUDY LESSON 

IN HIGH SCHOOL 



BY 



ALFRED LAWRENCE HALL-QUEST 

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND 

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING, UNIVERSITY 

OF VIRGINIA 



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THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1916 

All rigktt reur^ti 



THE NEW YORK 

PUBLIC LIBRARY 

783465A 

ASTOR, LENOX AND 

TILDKN FOUNDATIONS 

H 1936 L 



CopyinoHT, X916, 

bt the macmillan company. 



Set up and dectfotypad. Published June, 19x6. Reprinted 
September* 19x6. 



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J. S. Chuhing Co. —Berwick & Smith Co. 
Norwood, Mass.. U.SA. 



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MY MOTHER 



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WHO WAS MY FIRST TEACHER AND WHO 

IN COUNTLESS WAYS HAS BEEN 

A SOURCE OF INSPIRATION 




^ 



PREFACE 

Interest in supervised study has become so general within 
the last few years that the time seems ripe for the appearance 
of a discussion that seeks to define this new method of teach- 
ing. The following chapters aim (i) to formulate a tentative 
conception of supervised study ; (2) to indicate what should 
be included in a course on teaching the high school pupil 
how to study ; (3) to describe in detail the various schemes 
of organization by which the supervision of study is adminis- 
tered in a large number of schools; (4) to apply the prin- 
ciples and methods of supervised study to some of the 
subjects in the high school program; (5) to summarize the 
results of the more significant investigations aiming to prove 
the eflfectiveness of supervised study ; (6) to collect the data 
on supervised study that have appeared in several periodicals 
within the last five years and which may not have been 
accessible to the majority of teachers. 

I have sought to avoid theory as much as possible. Wher- 
ever theoretical discussions are introduced I have been guided 
by observations made in a number of high schools where this 
method is well established. The book aims to be practical. 
It is a reflection of things as they now are. It may seem 
to many teachers that some of the discussions are really 
treatments of the well-known recitation. My belief is that 
a cooperative recitation does employ many of the principles 

• • 

vu 



viii Preface 

of supervised study, and that for this reason any discussion 
of the study period as viewed in this book would necessarily 
include the recitation lesson. It should be noted, however, 
throughout the book that supervised study is interpreted to 
mean that method of instruction by means of which the 
teacher so presents the subject matter in hand that every 
pupil is given an adequate opportunity to understand and 
master the various problems. 

Supervised study, I hold, is concerned not so much with 
hearing lessons as with learning lessons. The teacher who 
is trying to teach her pupils how to study is not interested in 
memory feats. Recitation periods we must have, of course, 
for reviews are essential and summaries are indispensable. 
But with a thoroughly organized supervision of study the 
teacher will find less need of the old-time recitation. She 
will find in the study-period ample ground for class marks. 

From one angle, supervised study is simply an elaborate 
and cooperative assignment. The next lesson is made so 
clear and so much time is given each pupil to grasp its 
details that every one has a maximum chance to learn the 
lesson. This is fair to the pupiL Nothing is gained by an 
austere and autocratic attitude on the part of the teacher. 
Knowledge is not esoteric or aristocratic. It belongs to 
everybody and every one ought to have an opportunity to get 
as much of it as possible. Teaching is not telling or testing ; 
it is guiding and helping others to get knowledge. 

Obviously, I am indebted to a large number of schoolmen 
who have generously rendered me invaluable service in many 
forms specifically indicated in the various chapters. I am 
especially indebted to Dr. Charles Hughes Johnston of the 
University of Illinois from whom I first received the sug- 
gestion to make the field of study one of prolonged investiga- 



Preface ix 

tion, and from whom I have received, in a bewildering number 

of ways, inspiration and guidance. To Dr. W. C. Bagley I 

am indebted for many suggestions regarding the organization 

of the material throughout the book, and for encouraging 

stimulus to offer teachers a discussion of this method. I wish 

to acknowledge also my gratitude to Dr. J. Stanley Brown, of 

Joliet, 111. ; Mr. F. M. Giles, of DeKalb, lU. ; Dr. J. L. 

Merriam, of the University of Missouri ; Mr. G. E. Rickard, 

of Oakland City, Ind. ; Mr. L. I. Loveland, Principal of 

High School in Pottstown, Pa.; and Supt. £. E. Smith, of 

Richmond, Va., for the many data they gave me, which 

I have used in a variety of ways throughout the book. 

The authors and close readers will recognize also my 

frequent reference to The Psychology of High School Subjects 

by Charles H. Judd and to Methods of Teaching in High 

Schools by S. C. Parker. 

A. L. xx. 

University of Virginia, 
December 22, 1915. 



i 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



PART I 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND METHODS 



I. Thx Present Demand for Supervised Study 

I. The interchanging influence of society and the 
school II. Present conditions of society affecting the 
school. 1. The family — modified in four respects: 
a. Biological d. Architectural, c. Industrial, d. Social 
2. The modem program of studies. 3. The modem 
emphasis on industrial differences. Summary. 

IL The Conception of Supervised Study .... 

I. Supervised Study a new term. II. Misconceptions 
of Supervised Study. III. Various analyses of Super- 
vised Study. IV. The fourfold application of Supervised 
Study. 1. A new type of class management 2. A 
change of accent in methods of teaching. 3. Discrimi- 
nate organization. 4. School administration, a. Less 
home study, d. Longer school day. c, A new type of 
teacher, d. Better proportioned expenditure of money. 
V. The meaning of Supervised Study. 

III. Individual Differences 

I. The transition from class to individual instmction. 
IL What is meant by individual differences. III. Dif- 
ferences in individual abilities. 1. Differences in rate 
and amount of work. 2. Differences of ability accord- 
ing to subject a. An experiment in correlation, d, A 
pupil «bom short" 3. Differences in ability ac- 

• 

XI 



PAGBS 
1-15 



16-30 



31-61 



/ 



xii Table of Contents 

CHAPTBK FAGBS 

cording to sex. a, Pyle's curve, d. Monroe's data. 
c. Minnick*s data. d. Frailey-Crain data. General Con- 
clusion. IV. Individual differences in image types. 
Chancellor's investigation. No pure mental types. 
Thomdike*s criticism of ** Image type*' doctrine. 
Summary. V. Differences of character and disposition. 
1. An Illinois scheme. 2. Pyle's record sheet 3. Bag- 
ley's classification of troublesome cases. 4. A tientative 
analysis of high school pupils' dispositions as related to 
studying. 5. The Detroit system of records. General 
Summary. 

IV. Proper CoNDmoNS of and Hindrances to Studtino . 62-93 

I. The significance of favorable conditions. II. Con- 
ditions of studying classified. 1. Physiological condi- 
tions, including health, a. What health means. (1) Food, 
its quality and amount, time of eating. (2) Sleep — the 
bedchamber. (3) Recreation. 2. Physical conditions. 
a. Light — quality, amount, blackboards, d. Heat — 
kinds, c. Ventilation — methods, d. Appearance of 
pupil's study hall at home and at school. 3. Psychology 
ical conditions, a. Attention — posture, quick start, 
time limit, interest in subject, rapid reading, variety of 
appeal, d. Feeling tone . — success produces a pleasant 
feeling ; confidence in one's knowledge of fundamentals 
leads to forceful satisfaction ; moods are the emotional 
climate that exhilarate or depress the pupil at work ; the 
clash between self-preservative and social instincts in- 
cluding a study of the pupil's appearance and popularity ; 
weather and climate, c. Distractions — distribution of. 
Fatigue. General Summary. 

V. The Organization of Supervised Study . . . 94-126 

I. Inevitable variety of organizations. Classification 
of methods. II. General plans. 1. General Assembly 
Hall. a. Criticism. 2. The conference plans. Stated 
conference, appointments. (1) Technic of conference 
hour. (2) Benefits of conferences. 3. Study coach. 
a. Unassigned teacher. (1) Technic of the unassigned 
teacher, d. The study coach; unasngned teacher; 



Table of Contents xiii 

FAOBS 

(1) Technic of Study coach. (2) Summary. 4. The«De> 
layed Group " plan. 5. General directions in studying. 
a. Home study prog^ram. ^. Giles* scheme, c. Uni- 
versity of Chicago plan, d. Twin Falls, Id., study 
outline. General Summary. 

VI. The Organization of Supervised Study {Continued) . 127-160 

The importance of specific directions in study. 
III. Subject organizations. 1. Divided periods, a. The 
Newark plan. d. Columbia, Mo., plan — organization 
of; the Merriam directions. 2. The double period in 
Joliet, IlL a. Description of, by Dr. Brown, d. Gen- 
eral technic. (1) The teacher's preparations. (2) Assign- 
ments. (3) Supervising the pupils at work. 3. Weekly 
supervised study. 4. Daily — extra period. 5. Alter- 
nate daily periods. 6. Richmond plan. 7. Occasional 
supervision. General Summary. 

VII. Methods op Studying 161-194 

I. Investigations of the study of high school pupils. 
A* Time of day preferred. B, Studying alone. 

C, Amount of time spent in studying. II. Methods of 
work. 1. The use of the textbook, a. Underscor- 
ing. (1) Notice signs, d. Summarizing. (1) Means 
of training pupils to summarize, c. The use of the 
margin, d. Inserted leaves. D. Pupils' comments 
on their methods of studying. 2. Reference books, 
including dictionaries, encyclopedias, and magazines. 
3. Outlines, a. Structure of outiines. 6, Forms of 
outlines : (1) Vertical or serial (2) Oblique. (3) Paral- 
lel. (4) Brace or Horizontal (5) Interlacing. 4. Note- 
books, a. Kinds : (1) Loose-leaf. (2) Cards. (3) Manila 
folders and filing cases, d. How to keep notebooks. 
(1) How to take notes. (2) The appearance of the note- 
book. JS, Pupils' comments on their methods of study- 
ing. Summary. 

VIII. Methods of Studying {Continued) 19S-220 

5. Reports, special papers, etc. a. How to prepare 
for writing reports, b. The appearance of the finished 
report 6. Supplementary reading, a. How to pre- 



i 



xiv Table of Contents 

CHAPTBR PAGBS 

serve what is read. d. How to read rapidly, c. How 
to copy material in notebooks. 7. How to prepare 
for examinations, a. The use and abuse of cramming. 
d. The best way to study for examinations. 8. How 
to memorize. Methods — clear first impression, as- 
sociations, personal experience, supplementary reading, 
whole method, mnemonic devices, recall, studying aloud. 

9. Thinking, a. The thinking process, d. Thinking 
depends upon first impressions, organization, etc. 

10. Application. General Summary. 



PART II 

SPECIAL METHODS OF SUPERVISING THE STUDY 

OF VARIOUS SUBJECTS 

IX. Supervising the Study of English .... 221-251 

I. Grammar. 1. How to study grammar, a. For- 
mally, d. Incidentally and at home. II. Composition. 
A. Written composition. 1. Studying theme writing. 
a. Habits of writing are specific, not general, d. Flu- 
ency and forcefulness of expression depend upon having 
something to say. c. Coherence and balanced expres- 
sion are determined by habits of correct thinking. 
d. Interest in themes for their own sake will vitalize 
the pupiPs work. 2. Diversified forms of written com- 
position, a. How to study narration, d. Description. 
c. Exposition. d. Argumentation. 3. Supervising 
the written composition work, a, A minimum amount 
of written work. d. " Editing to kill " and the " tragedy 
of red ink." c, Reading best compositions before the 
class, d. A standing assignment £. To develop style 
requires many years. /. Mistakes calling for special 
attention. ^. Spelling. B. Oral composition. 1. How 
to study oral composition, a. Conversation and dis- 
cussion require (1) broad general knowledge, (2) special 
knowledge, (3) good listening, (4) beginning and clos- 
ing a conversation, (5) attitude in conversation, (6) voice 



Table of Contents 



XV 



FAGBS 



in conversation, (7) read conversations, d. Public 
speaking. (1) After-dinner speaking. (2) Addresses 
— gestures, how to prepare and use notes in public 
speaking, c. Debating, d. Artistic reading — pro- 
gram making. General Summary. 

X. Supervising the Study of History .... 

I. The teacher's aim. 1. Pupils' reasons for disliking 
history. 2. A new point of view needed. 3. Educa- 
tional value of history. II. Aims and corresponding 
general methods. III. How pupils study histoiy. 

1. Johnson's investigation. 2. Rickard's study. 
IV. Supervising the studying of history. 1. Rickard's 
analysis of mental processes in the studying of history. 

2. The dictionary habit 3. Cultivation of imagination 
and feeling. 4. Organization of material, a. Parallel 
outlines, d. Wayland's alliterative outlines, c, Rick- 
ard's scheme of direction. 5. Reviews and summaries. 
tf. Selective not exhaustive, d. New views, c. Vital 
associations; directions to pupils. V. Common diffi- 
culties and faults. VI. The technic of a supervised 
study period in history — the Merriam plan. 



252-275 



XI. 



Supervising the Study op Civics 276-286 

I. The present significance of the subject II. How 
to secure interest in civics. III. Methods of studying 
civics. 1. Group assignments. 2. Current topics — 
the £. £. Smith plan. General Summary. 



XII. Supervising the Study of Mathematics 



. 287-^304 



I. The problem of reorganization. II. The value 
of mathematics. III. The teacher of mathematics. 
IV. Supervising the study of mathematics. 1. The 
assignment 2. Class management in mathematics. 

3. The method of teaching must be symptomatic. 

4. Reviews and examinations should test ability to 
think and apply mathematical knowledge. 5. Arouse 
and accumulate interest by giving high appraisal to work. 
6, Frequent and systematic use of library. 7. The 
teacher must advertise the subject by striking media. 



XVI 



Table of Contents 



CHAPTBR 

8. The aim constantly in view should be to develop in- 
dependent thinking. 9. Class management of double 
period in Joliet, IlL General Summary. 

XIII. SUPBRTISING THE STUDY OF THE SCIENCES 

I. General vs. Special Science courses. II. The aim 
in studying science. III. Suggestions fordirectii^g the 
study of science. 1. The laboratory, a. The experi- 
ments, b. Notebooks, c. Mill's directions for labora* 
tory work. 2. Outdoor observation and general 
reading, a. Original problems, b. Recent additions 
to the fortune of knowledge. General Sununary. 

XIV. How TO Supervise the Study of Languages 

I. The most workable aim. 1. The relation between 
Latin and English. II. Methods of approach. III. Su- 
pervising the study of language. 1. How to begin — 
the Gurlitt Method — the Joliet Method. 2. Pronun- 
•ciation. 3. Memory work and vocabulary. 4. Or- 
^^ization and translation — use of translations. 
$. Conversation. 6. Dramatization and magazine work. 
7. Schemes of directions and procedure — S3rmponttm 
by several teachers. General Summary. 

XV. Supervising the Study of Literature .... 
I. The purpose of literary study. 1. To gain knowl- 
edge. 2. To enrich one's vocabulary. 3. To cultivate 
style. 4. To relax the mind. 5. To appreciate the beauti- 
fuL II. What high school pupils Hke to read. III. How 
to study literature. 1. A broader course needed — the 
plan in Cicero, IlL 2. How to direct the pupil's out- 
side reading. IV. Methods of supervising the study of 
literature. 1. Studying the novel — how to judge its 
merits, special points, why read, the importance of de- 
tective and short stories. 2. The essay. 3. The drama. 
4. Poetry, a. The problem of s^preciation. b. The 
need of studying poetry, c. Special methods — para- 
graphing, classification of instincts and imagery, inter- 
pretation of allusions, biography of author, memorizing. 
d, Merriam on studying Evangeline, e, Reading. 
General Summary. 



305-317 



318-347 



348-371 



Table of Contents 



xvu 



XVI. 



Supervising the Study of the Fine and Practical 
Arts 

I. The natural interest in art. II. The aim in study- 
ing art III. Methods of supervising the study of 
these courses. 1. The method of application. 2. Skill 
through contact with life problems. 3. School credit 
for private work. 4. A study of crediting. 5. Bristol, 
Conn., scheme. 6. Suggestions for organizing courses 
in art General Summary. 



PAGBS 



372-382 



PART III 



XVII. The Effectiveness of Supervised Study . 

I. Measured results. 1. The symposium at Co- 
lumbia University. 2. Results in Trenton, N.J. 
3. Newark, N.J., results. 4. Results in Joliet, IlL 

5. Statement of results in Minnick*s investigation. 

6. Breslich*s results. 7. Loveland*s results in Potts- 
town, Penn. 8. Results in Pueblo, Colo. 9. Results 
in Cairo, III 10. Results by Rickard in Oakland City, 
Ind. II. The teacher's preparation — Rickard's direc- 
tions. General Conclusions. 



383-398 



Appendix. Organization of Supervised Study in Richmond, Va. . 399-408 

Bibliography 409^16 

Index 417-433 



/ 



7> 



SUPERVISED STUDY 

PART I 

CHAPTER I 
THE PRESENT DEMAND FOR SUPERVISED STUDY 

I. The Interchanging Influence or Society and the 

School 

When the primitive savage taught his boy to handle the 
bow and arrow, the spear, or the sling ; taught him the use of 
certain herbs, and the meaning of the east wind and the wind 
from the west and north ; taught him with an earnestness and 
eloquence that might well be imitated by modem teachers 
how spirit forms inhabited dark mysterious caves and regions 
near the himting groimds, how dragons and demons and 
witches lay in wait to destroy the unwary himter ; taught 
him, moreover, the most fadle method of catching game, 
building a fire, and building a home — all of this was edu- 
cation by personal supervision. It was education by means 
of life itself. The bow and arrow were the same that the 
skilled arm would a littie later send to the himt. Subject 
matter and method were suited to the economic needs of the 
time by the employment of the very means necessary for 
an effective existence. In a true sense this was real voca- 
tional education. 

True, in that primitive form, it has been the method by 
which society's agency — the school — has been organized 

B X 

i 



2 Supervised Study 

and reorganized. The school must reflect the needs of the 
time and provide for them as well as society makes possible. 
It is true, of course, that some of these needs are constant. 
In the gradual evolution of intelligent life a few basic instru- 
ments of group life have been established as necessary for 
individuals in all groups. There can be no intimacy with 
other members of the human family if the individual is unable 
to read and write or attend to the details of trade or busi- 
ness. All men must know the simple fimdamentals of arith- 
metic. Society very early found it necessary to teach its 
coming braves or workers, as well as rulers, those subjects 
by which it expected to maintain its strength and increase 
its influence. As civilization has become more comprehensive 
the school has evolved into its present complexity that in 
itself indicates how far-reaching is the domain of himian 
achievement. 

The foregoing generally accepted and quite evident truths 
have not, however, found definite school expression without 
considerable struggle. Strange as it may seem, society has 
created a means of progress and then must be compelled by 
this very agency to adjust the means of education to fit needs 
created by the schools but not clearly understood by society. 
In other words, the school not only reflects the social needs 
at hand, but it forces society to recognize new needs and new 
problems, and insists upon the right to add subject matter 
and devise methods of coping with these probjiems. Or, 
and this amounts to the same thing, the educational agents 
of society find it necessary to urge the several communities 
to adopt better means by which the old and constant needs 
can more effectively be supplied. 

Inevitably, the social order has evolved a number of con- 



k 



The Present Demand for Supervised SPudy 3 

ditions that in one way or another compel thoughtful read- 
justment. Some of these, intimately associated with school 
work, will now be considered. 



n. Present Conditions of Society Affecting the 

School 

!• The Family. The modem American family bears little 
resemblance to its primitive ancestors — the kinship, patriar- 
chal, and similar types. In fact, one j&nds a wide difference 
between the early American family of the eighteenth century 
and the latest twentieth-century marital conditions. The 
sacred view of family life in early New England seems to 
be disappearing. True, marriages are still solemnized by the 
various churches, — the form of sacredness is retained, — but 
the spirit, the control of the family, seems to be less rev- 
erent, and less imified than in the early Colonial times. 
In the South the beautiful family life on the extensive plan- 
tations is almost a memory, although one still finds delightful 
evidences of its once unsurpassed hospitality. 

The American family of to-day is the result of several inevi- 
table social and economic forces that doubtless are peculiar to 
a type of civilization like our own highly evolved democracy. 
It should not be concluded that the modem type of family, 
because in many respects different from that of " the good old 
days,'' is wholly inferior to its earlier forms. Unquestionably, 
some worthy characteristics have suffered regrettable decline, 
but on the other hand the modem American family has dis- 
tinct advantages. 

The following influences have singly or collectively modified 
the conditions of the modem family in the United States : 



i 



4 Supervised Study 

a. Biological Conditions. In his discussion of The Family 
Dealey writes of early New England population : 

"With a whole continent before them inviting settlement, there 
was a premium on population, so that early marriages and large 
families were the rule. There were few bachelors, still fewer 
spinsters, and the widowed of either sex seldom spent many months 
in mourning. In some colonies special taxation and severe regula- 
tion discouraged bachelors from the selfish luxury of sohtary 
living." 

Whoever is familiar with the development of real estate, 
for example in New York City, has observed the increasing 
number of so-called " bachelor apartments," arranged con- 
veniently for the " selfish luxury of solitary living." Twenty 
years ago such dwellings were almost unknown. With the 
rapid increase of luxuries and the even more rapid multiplica- 
tion of wants the cost of living has advanced beyond the in- 
come of the average yoimg man. Furthermore, it is an open 
secret that many yoimg women are unwilling to repeat in their 
own lives the poverty and consequent needful sacrifices of 
their parents while accimiulating comparative wealth. The 
result is that the race is reproducing itself at a slower rate than 
heretofore. 

The modem trend is manifestly toward city life. In 1790 
only 3,3s per cent of the people in the United States lived in 
cities. According to the census of 1910, 46.3 per cent of the 
American population is urban. The reasons for this are easy 
to find. The city offers markets, shopping facilities, amuse- 
ments^ home conveniences, manifold diversions. Crowds 
stimulate the social instinct. Industries and transportation 
have developed cities and attracted the hordes who work in 



The Present Demand for Supervised Study $ 

factories or serve in the of&ces of great business concerns. 
Because large, convenient, and alluring, the city appeals not 
only to rural dwellers but to the countless immigrants from 
Europe and the Orient. The inmiensity of the city seems to 
symbolize unlimited opportunity in this world-famed Eldo- 
rad ! One finds, then, that city population is a confusion of 
the rural and foreign bom with the native urbanite whose 
family is comparatively small. 

How does this aflfect the demand for supervised study? In 
larger families the older children are as a rule given charge 
of the yoimger. There is a spirit of cooperation and imselfish- 
ness in large families that emphasizes the need and beauty of 
service. Again, the large family is a little world with its own 
amusements, diversion, duties, and preferences. The home 
spirit is warm. Outside distractions are less serious. There 
is likely to be a mutual respect among the members. Parental 
authority is frequently less severe but more cherished. So far 
as the writer's observation extends, these characteristics of 
large families are quite imiform. Now, in such a home the 
pupil with home lessons has a number of tutors who perhaps 
too generously will help him with his home work, but the 
point is — he does get help. 

On the other hand, the large poor family may by this very 
fact be unfavorably situated for supervising the study of 
school assignments. There are family cares, • distractions, 
and unfortimate background — all militating against an at- 
mosphere that is conducive to the best kind of studying. 

b. Architectural Conditions, The modem dwelling is both 
an improvement over houses in the past and a lowering of the 
standard. In cities many homes have conveniences imdreamt 
of by our grandparents. At the same time these arrangements 



6 Supervised Study 

of living are no longer novel ; they must be judged in relation 
to present needs. One finds the housing capacity in the big 
dty inadequate ; sanitary conditions often are frightful. The 
increase of tenements, with ill-lighted alleys and air shafts, a 
few small rooms, gloomy and ugly, or if generally cheerful and 
sanitary, still small and barely large enough — this type of 
home presents meager opportunity for study. In districts 
where the family owns or rents a house, the conditions usually 
are much better, but even here the chances for the school pvpil 
to have a private study room are quite rare. 

The following Table I shows where 3252 pupils in seven high 
schools of Illinois studied in 1914. 

Table I. — Whexe High School Pupils Sttdy 



Cuss 


1 




1 




1 




i 




i 




1 




j 


1 




i 




■J 






1 




> 




€ 




Z 


Freshmen . 


„, 


«.™ 






A<' 


1" 


., 


^„ 


™ 


4.« 


« 


.„ 


11 




1091 


Junion . , 


mi 


Mftfi 




40.W 


iS 


'.ii 




a; 


"^^^ 


;-s 




.09 


" 




6S1 


SenigH. . 


106 


3I.?6 


iil 


40.6H 




6.4B 48 


'I-'!'I 


SJ 


S.i9 


- 


- 


19 


-4-7 


«I7 


ToUb . 


»3 


3C.3 


.53. 


«.= 


163 


S-=6 i(iS 


6„ 


'" 


fi.fii 


.7;. 5. 


..9 


i£s 


"'' 



It will be seen from Table I that 1535, or nearly 48 percent, 
studied in the living room. About 31 per cent had their own 
room. Of the 48 per cent, 564 or nearly 52 per cent were first- 
year pupils grappling with new subjects, new methods, new 
points of view. The author found in this survey that the 
largest per cents of pupils studying in the Uving room lived in 
the three largest cities that he visited while making the investi- 



The Present Demand for Supervised Study 7 

gation, and also that in these same cities first-year pupils more 
than others did not have their own rooms for quiet studying. 

c. Industrial Conditions. The instinct of self-preservation 
with its expression of the individual's independence has found 
unlimited stimulus in American democracy. Once, the child 
remained consciously and quite willingly dependent upon the 
parents for a number of years. Beyond the home there were 
only a few occasional attractions indulged in, and these did not 
materially disturb family imity or stability. But to-day the 
boy seven or eight years old begins to earn " spending money " 
by selling papers, running errands, or doing odd jobs. Parents 
pay their children a few pennies a day for doing household 
work. The child is early taught — and rightly so — to be 
economically independent. By the exercise of this independ- 
ence the child becomes skilled and even versatile. His plastic- 
ity, curiosity, and energy make possible a wide range of informa- 
tion and ability, beyond that of the parents in many instances. 
The older children are even more independent. They usually 
pay for their board and room at home. They exercise their 
own judgment in selection of wearing apparel. They make 
acquaintances outside of the circle of friends frequented by the 
parents. Resulting from this economic independence is a 
decrease in respect for parental authority. The children may 
even feel superior to their parents. 

The industrial imity of the early family required that every 
child contribute to the general store of supplies. Practically 
everything needful was made at home. Candles, clothing, 
furniture, food — all necessities were made by the family. 
There was constant exchange of service. The division of labor 
was individual and familial. The small family group was 
quite sufficient unto itself. To-day, however, industry is 



8 Supervised Study 

widely diflferentiated. Few things are made at home. Many 
families rent apartments and board. There is little or no visi- 
ble evidence of interdependence. Each member of the family 
feels that he owes nothing to the others and that they owe 
nothing to him beyond monetary assistance — and this is an 
elastic band. 

The school child in these independent family groups soon 
finds that there is little time, little inclination, and less ability 
to serve him along intellectual lines. Ideals and interests 
have become so individualized that only with difficulty can any 
member of the family render competent service to the child 
attending school. Moreover, providing the child with a sug- 
gestive and hygienic study environment is unthought of or at 
best not imderstood. The child must attend the school — so 
the law demands, and what a relief to the mother ! — but be- 
yond the common necessities little is contributed in many 
homes toward the success of the child's career. 

d. Social Conditions, With the industrial and economic 
independence of the members of the home there has come 
the enlarged opportunity for social independence. Modern 
amusements have a constant variety of appeal. Facilities for 
travel have added to life's pastimes. Lacking unity along 
other lines, it cannot be expected that all the members of the 
family will have the same friends or the same sources of enjoy- 
ment. With diversity of time and place in religious worship, 
with different hours of employment, and also individual 
tastes well developed and frequently indulged in, it is not sur- 
prising to find that the home has become in many cases more 
of a hotel than a hearth. The result of this conflict of habits 
is evident from the following tables including conditions in 
Iowa and Minneapolis, Minn. 



\ 



The Present Demand for Supervised Study 



Table n. — Evenings at Home Each Week 





7 


6 


5 


4 


3 


a 


I 





Iowa City . . . 


36 


41 


92 


90 


68 


34 


7 


15 


Dvibuque . . . 


25 


31 


70 


99 


73 


33 


II 


7 


Burlington . . . 


IS 


20 


76 


88 


31 


17 


3 


6 


Ottumwa . . . 


21 


45 


106 


132 


77 


26 


5 


9 




97 


137 


344 


409 


249 


no 


26 


37 


Minneapolis . . 


91 


55 


79 


56 


45 


25 


15 


14 


Two small schools 


8 


20 


26 


19 


16 


9 


2 


14 



It was found in Iowa that pupils spending 4-7 entire evenings 
per week at home average 55 failures to every 100 pupils, but 
pupils spending 0-3 evenings per week at home average 135 
failures to every 100 pupils, some failing in more than one 
subject. 

In Minneapolis it was learned by the Schoolmasters' Survey 
that 8 per cent of the mothers and 10 per cent of the fathers 
were absent from home more than two evenings or afternoons 
(in the case of mothers) a week ; while 40 per cent of the 
fathers and 46 per cent of the mothers were absent once a 
week. Only 54 per cent of the pupils had the stay-at-home 
habit. In 20 per cent of the homes there was " company " 
twice a week; in 12 per cent three times a week. Approxi- 
mately 50 per cent of the families represented in the investiga- 
tion ate breakfast together about three times a week ; 26 per 
cent were never together at the morning meals. The children 
slept late and ate breakfast on the run to school. " Thus they 
miss not only good training in punctuality, in formal con- 
versation, and in deliberation, but they actually injure their 
health besides." 



i 



lo Supervised Study 

The writer's investigation of study conditions in seven high 
schools of Illinois in May, 1914, throws some additional light on 
this matter. Of 1091 first-year high school pupils 27.54 per 
cent attended parties away from home at least once a week, 
and 16.6 per cent from one to three times a month. 7.77 
per cent had parties at home at least once a week ; 12.28 per 
cent from one to three a month. 24.13 per cent attended the 
theater once a week, 28.19 per cent once or more a month, 
59.30 per cent went to the " movies '' at least once a week, and 
38.13 per cent more than once a week. Of 863 second-year 
pupils 30.80 per cent attended parties once a week, 12.26 per 
cent more than once a week. 8.32 per cent had parties at home 
once a week ; 1 2.04 per cent one to six a month. 28.78 per cent 
attended the theater at least once a week and the movies 
57.65 per cent at least once a week. Of 681 third-year pupils 
38.16 per cent went to parties once a week, 16.4 per cent once 
to six times a month. 7.62 per cent had parties at home once 
a week, and 12.56 per cent once to three times a month. 20.21 
per cent went to the theater once a week ; 26.84 per cent once 
to six times a month. 57.98 per cent went to the movies once 
a week, and 35.52 per cent more than once. The 617 grave 
seniors are not as grave as reputed. 36.44 per cent attend 
parties once a week, and 1 5.70 per cent from one to six a month. 
12.32 per cent have weekly parties at home; 11.46 per cent 
once to three times a month. 25.41 per cent of them enjoyed 
the drama (?) once a week, and 34.4 per cent went to the 
theater once to six times a month; while 43.73 per cent 
watched the thrilling reels once a week, and 26.88 per cent 
more than once. 

Summary. From the foregoing it is clear that the family, 
with its variability in size, lack of room, and diversified indus- 



I 



The Present Demand far Supervised Study ii 

trial and social activities^ offers little or no opportxmity for 
the efficient guidance or supervision of the child's study habits 
during its school years. If assistance is offered^ it is strained, 
nervous, often inaccurate. The child hardly feels that its 
problems are of interest to the others. Control and super- 
vision are limited to a requirement that the child study at a 
certain time, but to compel a child to study in an environment 
full of distractions and with no suggestions of intellectual effort 
is not likely to produce favorable results physically or intellec- 
tually. Moreover, the high school pupil is entitled to con- 
siderable social life. He needs it for relaxation and he needs it 
for easier dealing with people. A long home-study schedule 
seriously interferes with needful recreation. 

2. The Modem Program of Studies. When education 
meant a reasonable proficiency in the three R's, it was a com- 
paratively simple task to study. Books were few and thin. 
The applications of knowledge were few and local. School 
work doubtless had its hardships because stem and relentless 
discipline required the child to " toe the mark " under the 
threat of a severe flogging. But the lessons were mastered 
at home in the family drcle or in the school building in the 
presence of the teacher. 

To-day, however, there ar e o ver 200 su b jects taugh t in the 
hig h schools of America. Some of these are closely shnilar 
to others, but as stated in a hundred catalogues in 1913 the 
subjects are over 200. Requirements have increased and 
electives have multiplied. Books are many and heavy. 
Hours are long and crowded. Of necessity, school work 
is becoming highly standardized, so that it is now more 
diflScult for a child to " slide through " in our large school 
systems. The distances between school and home are often 



12 Supervised Study 

long. With a full day's work, under a pressing organization, 
it is small wonder that many children fail to accomplish as 
much as parents and teachers require. 

The complexity of the school program, with its rich additions 
and many subjects still unorganized, presents a problem to the 
conscientious parent and teacher who are just as solicitous of 
the pupils' health physically as of their mental development. 
The problem has its various divisions. The enriched program 
of studies calls for a wise and just differentiation of courses, 
so that no pupil shall need to study subjects that can have littie 
or no value in his life career. Requirements for high school 
graduation in some places have been reduced to a bare mini- 
mum. B y the organization of Jiuiior High Schools in nea rlv 
^o Q Ry<=f temc ^ {h\9. fl.djr\^tment of subjects to life needs o f differ- 
entiated groups of pupils is wel l pro vided for. Many effective 
administrative policies have been enacted for the relieving 
of xmeconomical studying in the high schools throughout the 
United States. Hygienic schedules, modem buildings, more 
highly trained teachers, social organizations, departmental 
viewpoints and groupings — these as well as better texts 
and metiiods of teaching witii the increasing reports of m- 
vestigations carried on by high school teachers and others 
interested in secondary education, witness to the rapidly 
evolving attitude that the American high school requires ex- 
pert and wide expression. 

Because reconstruction and revision are the spirit of modem 
life, no apology is needed for suggesting that in all of this im- 
provement supervised study should have a prominent if in- 
deed not a central place. With buildings hygienically sound, 
with methods of teaching and teachers pedagogically closer to 
the standard, there is little if any reason to deny that in the 



k 



The Present Demand for Supervised Study 13 

high school building should be concentrated the intellectual life 
of young people during the formal learning period. Here the 
environment can be made conducive to studying. The tools 
of studying are easily assembled. The most logical individual 
to do the work is here present, for the teacher's task should 
be largely to prevent the pupil from forming bad habits of study 
and to help him to form correct habits of intellectual work. 

Arguments in behalf of s upervised stud y are more justified 
when one considers the results of jfhis new method. In Chap- 
ter XVn some of these benefits/ are noted in detail, but, to 
anticipate, it has been foimd by many superintendents that 
ret ardation and elimination hav^ b een greatly reduced by this 
me^ G reater enthusiasm and initiative are no ticeable. 
The effect on the teachers is Uke^se wholesome, for supervised 
study involves a reduction of /the " telling " method. The 
tea cher is not expected to ask is manv questions as now see m 
neces sary in all too many scho6l s. 

3. The Modem Emphasis on Individual Differences. To 
the student of the history of education the modem tendency 
to treat scientifically the problem of individual differences is 
especially interesting. For centuries individual instruction 
was the common method of class management. Each pupil 
was called to the teacher's desk for the purpose of reciting — 
usually an exhibition of memory eflSiciency. The noteworthy 
efforts of Lancaster and Bell to improve this wasteful method 
had wholesome results. Groups containing usually ten pupils 
were given in charge of a superior pupil titled " monitor." 
Several of these groups would recite at the same time to their 
respective monitorial instmctors. Ample provision was made 
for individual capacities by allowing pupils to recite in each 
subject with the group to which his progress most logically 



i 



14 Supervised Study 

fitted him. In arithmetic, for example, he might be a member 
of a very advanced group, and in spelling find his place in a 
slower group. 

The recognition of individual differences has recently re- 
ceived more careful observation and organization. Thorn- 
dike, Ayres, Courtis, and others have performed various kinds 
of experiments and have devised methods of exact measure- 
ments, so that what has conmionly been accepted. as true — 
namely, th at pupils in a class cannot all progress_at , the_same 
rate — is now scientifically demonstrated and by different 
methods provided for. These methods will be discussed in a 
later chapter. Class instruction, having proved an immense 
time-saver over the centuries-old individual instruction, is in- 
adequate and imjust to the differing capacities of school chil- 
dren. Some pupils easily ado pt effective methods of study 
and achieve quick result s. Oth ers work less effectively and 
more inaccurately. The former deserve greater opportimities 
for ongmal and advanced work. The latter require and should 
hav£^tmcSoi^^ ' 

Although, in the main, mental processes are alike in all 
individuals, differing qualities and amounts of instruction and 
learning tend to produce marked differences among pupils 
in their ability to grasp new material. Vicious habits of 
study, easily acquired in earlier grades, persist and become 
increasingly stubborn as the pupil goes from grade to grade. 
He adopts the easy method of memorizing. Independent 
thinking has never been taught him — he believes that this is 
the ability of only a favored few. Consequently, when he 
finds in high school that memorizing is not a successful method 
and has no substitute, his progress is retarded, and he loses 
interest and courage. The trouble began early in his school 



The Present Demand for Supervised Study 15 

career. It could have been corrected or prevented in the lower 
grades, as Lida B. Earhart, Ph.D., has shown, but in mass 
organization the individual was submerged. " The survival 
of the fit " controlled promotions — the weak had to fall by 
the wayside. 

Supervised study in the high school is a definite and scientific 
attempt to correct these long prevalent evils. It comes late, 
but better so than never coming at all when the intellectual an7 
social advan^ges oi pupils are at stake. "^he superviaSn of 
stu dy makes possible tne advance of each pupil acc ording 
to his individual capacities. There is an equal chance for 
every one — equal in the sense that standards are individual, 
not class — so that whenever each pupil masters his difficulties, 
however large or small the percentage .of quality may be, he 
may advance. 

SUIOCAKY 

These considerations, then, are some of the more evi- 
dent sodal and educational conditions that have stimulated 
educators to revise methods of class management. The 
family is no longer the close unit of former days. Its 
members are more independent of one another, and this inde- 
pendence becomes evident early. The rich program of the 
schools renders it quite impossible for members of the family, 
even if so disposed, to help the pupil accurately with home 
study. Individual differences are being more adequately 
recognized. Schemes of class promotions are now felt to be 
unfair to pupils often retarded for perfectly legitimate reasons. 
Opportunities must bejprovided for eyejQr^puygil to advance 
accorBSng to his capacity. This need, with fairness to the 
standards of the school as well as to the limitations of its pupils, 
is met by supervising the study habits of each pupil. 



i 



CHAPTER II 

THE CONCEPTION OF SUPERVISED STUDY 

I. Supervised Study a New Term 

The current movement of imiform terminology in high school 
administration, stimulated and developed in the main by Dr. 
Charles Hughes Johnston of the University of Illinois, is one of 
the fortunate outcomes of scientific thinking on the problems 
of secondary education. The list of terms on which there 
should be general agreement is comparatively long and com- 
prehensive. Each term, such as " program of studies,'* 
" curriculum," " course," " miit of instruction," " pupil," 
" credit," etc., reflects careful and cooperative thinking. The 
many intricate problems of the high school are here dealt with 
in a clear and intelligible form. Many high school problems 
would appear less complex and hopeless if schoolmen em- 
ployed a language whose various terms indicated a clear-cut 
distinction of purpose, function, and method. 

It is interesting to find, however, that the term *' supe r- 
vised stud y " is not included in the list. At first tms might 
seem a serious oversight, but in reality it is a sileiit confession 
of the fact that no one engaged in high schom work or con- 
cerned with the problems of secondary eduatuon has been able 
to define the term. 1 ^^: is new Onp Hpfig^rint find it in educa- 
tional Uterature jal five years .^o. Only within the last two 

i6 



The Conception of Supervised Study 17 

ye ars has its usag e becom e fair ly well organized. It is still, 
however, unknown to many teachers, and there is no general 
understanding of its technical signification. 

n. Misconceptions of Supervised Study 

This condition doubtless accounts for some of the indiffer- 
ence, and even antagonism, displayed toward what is supposed 
to be its method. One hears it frequently said by high school 
teachers that the pupil must rely on himself. Grappling with 
a problem imtil eventually he solves it, gives the pupil confi- 
dence and ambition. " It makes him think." It happens 
only too frequently that travelers in a new country lose their 
way. They may know many things about traveling. By 
tedious, arduous, discouraging, and perhaps injurious at- 
tempts they eventually* may find familiar paths and havens. 
Doubtless they did considerable thinking, and their satisfac- 
tion upon at last finding the right way was, of course, a natu- 
ral state of feeling. But would it not have been better never 
to have missed the path? If the pupil's power to think 
depends on tedious, prolonged, and all too frequently unsuc- 
cessful effort, then it is small wonder that so few high school 
pupils think — nay, more — it is the possible explanation of 
the dearth of thinking among the masses. The doctrine of 
difficulty has its martyr-host as numerous and pathetic as 
the victims of untested opinion and ideas in religion and 
government. The learning process is difficult enough without 
putting a special premium on difficulties. 

Intense Effort must be Directed. Advocates of the strenuous 
life in education at times seem to ignore the fact that effort 
for its own sake is sheer waste. Effort is a means, not an end. 
The automobile stalled in a mudhole will grumble and roar 



1 8 • Supervised Study 

and pull. There is effort a-plenty and there is waste of " gas," 
tires, time, nerves, and good disposition as well. But direct 
this effort by chains, boards, or q>ecial devices for overcoming 
such mishaps, and effort proves successful. The athlete puts 
forth effort in the game or on the track. But he must be 
economical. He must know how to breathe, how to mass his 
strength at the point of greatest strain, how to use just enough 
and no more, being always ready for the inevitable need of 
strength during the last minute of play, for the last lap of the 
course. 

In .studying, there is perhaps more waste of time and more 
waste of nervous energy than in any other department of 
educational life. One might add that there has been wanton 
waste of paper and pencils as well, in *tb% iCsual methods of 
studying, kass tea^i htiried-^^si^ents, indiscrimi- 
nate marking, together with the expectation that studying 
is a self-evident process, have wrought grave injustice to 
the pupils and have delayed a finer eflSiciency of school 
product. There are, however, hopeful signs on the horizon. 
Superintendents, principals, and teachers are uniting in a 
reorganization of high school methods of teaching, in which 
the factors of the educative or learning process will be given 
greater weight and more conscientious oversight. 

III. Various Analyses of Supervised Study 

In our attempt to formulate at least a tentative definition 
of this new term, it will be suggestive to examine some of the 
recent literature dealing with this subject. 

In July, 1914, there appeared The Modem High School,^ in 
which Chapter X by the present author deals with "The 

^ C. H. Johnston, Editor, Scribners. 1914. 



The Conception of Supervised Study 19 

Direction of Study as the Chief Aim of the High School." 
The main headings of the chapter are as follows : 

The need of attending to the technic of study. 

The meaning of study. 

Factors in the technic of study. 

The teacher an Alpine guide. 

Assignments. 

The study period. 

Management of the study period. 

Plans of supervised study. 

Difficulties of supervision ; a feasible plan. 

How to use books — The function of books in the technic of 
study. 

Conditions of effective studying — incentives, study room, light, 
temperature, diet, sleep, health. 

Hindrances — laziness, mind wandering. 

The social appeal of the high school through study. 

Two volumes of imusual significance appeared during the 
simmier of 1915- One volume, Methods of Teaching in High 
Schools^ devotes Chapters XVI and XVII to "Supervised 
Study'' and "The Use of Books." The main points of 
supervised study are: 

1. The supervision of individual students who are studying 
silently at their desks should replace a considerable part of the 
time now spent on recitations and home study. 

2. Poor students especially fail to profit under the system of 
recitations based on home study. 

3. Precisely measured, experimental investigations show that 
supervised study improves the work of poor students. 

4. Divided periods, part for recitation and part for supervised 

^ S. C. Parker, Gkin & Co., 19 15. 




20 Supervised Study 

study, should be arranged as regular parts of the daily programs in 
most high school subjects. 

5. Conditions favorable to study are those favorable to con- 
centration of attention. 

a. Physical conditions and certain routine habits may be 

easily improved. 
6. Spontaneous interest and concentrated thinking are more ^ 

difficult to secure, but are essential. 

6. A special technic of supervising study should be ma stered 
b y teache rs. It s hould include 

a. S kill in determining; lJi^_ character of the p rogress being 
m ade by students while they are stud3nn g. 

b. Skill in stimulatin g and a idin g this progress bv me ans of 
questions and suggestions without assisting too much. 



■ V" rt-j^h««u»<tf«na«il»WMw^^«Mi mt9rmm*' ^wi^**.^' 'l^UAAk 



The main points of the chapter on " The Use of Books '' are : 

1. The use of books is a most important process in social life, 
and it is the most economical means of instruction in school. 

2. Textbook study should be supplemented by other required 
readings and by independent investigations by students upon 
assigned topics. 

3. Great care should be exercised to select textbooks that treat 
subjects intensively in a manner that can be easily understood by 
students. 

4. The recitation period should be used primarily for interpreta- 
tive and supplementary discussion, although testing should not be 
neglected. 

5. For required supplementary reading, sufficient duplicate 
copies of a few serviceable books should be available, and exact 
page assignments to these should be made. 

6. Contribution recitations can be eflFectively organized on the 
basis of such supplementary reading and of more elaborate inde- 
pendent investigations of special topics by individual students. 




The Conception of Supervised Study 21 

7. In such investigations, students should be trained to pursue 
standard bibliographical methods. 

8. The system of oral reports based upon such investigations 
should be standardized and routinized so as to include frequent 
conferences with the instructor, descriptive bibhographies, care- 
fully prepared briefs, and oral reports of varying length adapted 
to the capacities of individual students. 

The second volume, The Psychology of High School Subjects,^ 
contains in Chapter XVIII several pages of helpful sugges- 
tions on " Teaching Students to Study." Among them are : 

Psychology as a science of methods of study. 
Psychology of different types of study. 
Rapid survey. 

Observing methods of study. 
Asking questions of people and of books. 
Formulating productive questions. 
The discovery of problems. 
The advantage of group study. 
Training in economical methods of study. 
Anticipation of applications. 
Students profit by use of standards. 
Progression a test of effective training. 
School subjects require psychological analysis. 
Subject matter less important than progression. 
Organizing a study program. 
Selecting essentials. 
Elaborating a theme. 
Reviews. 
Mental hygiene. 

Dangers of overstimulation and of distraction. 
Adjusting study to outside engagements. 
Excellent students require the maximum of attention. 

^ C. H. Judd, Ginn & Co., 1915. 



/ 



22 Supervised Study 

The foregoing lists indicate the present scope of the subject. 
S upervised s tudy may be re garded, in the light of these topics, 
3l new form of 

1. Class management. 

2. Methods of teaching. 

3. Curriculum organization. 

4. School administration. 

IV. The Foukfolb Application of Stjpervised Study 

1. A New Tjrpe of Class Management. S upervised stud y 
in volve s a change from mass teac hing to individual or sm aller 
group mstructio n. In this book a number of schemes are de- 
scribed that aim to break up class teaching into more effective 
forms of dealing with individuals from the standpoint of their 
mental, hygienic, emotional, and vocational needs. It will be 
found that some of these schemes seek to retain the form of 
class organization and to supplement it by study periods ef- 
fectively supervised, or by a study coach whose office is both 
advisory and tutorial. Other schemes minimize class organi- 
zation and stress the need of devoting most or all of the class 
period to individual studying. Whatever the plan advocated, 
it will be observed that the pupil is regarded as possibly differ- 
ent from others in native capacity or in temporary responsive- 
ness to certain phases of the course. The tendency in most 
of the supervised study plans is to " relief '' the individual, 
to set him apart from the group so as to give him a better 
opportimity to employ his type of learning to an efficient 
achievement according to his rate of progress. 

2. A Change of Accent in Methods of Teaching. The revi- 
sion in management necessarily affects the teacher's method 
of xmfolding new material or in transferring old matter into 



The Conception of Supervised Study 23 

vital Implications. Whereas, in all too many cases, the assign- 
ment has been hurried, indefinite, and insufficiently motivated ; 
under the method known as supervised study, the assignment 
is advanced to a place of fundamental importance. It will be 
seen that in the following pages considerable space is devoted 
to t he assignm ^Tit. It is the all-essential of a good start in 
studvin g. It is the teacher's golden moment for stimulating 
interest, suggesting methods of studying, and presenting a dear 
explanation of what is involved in the new lesson. The assign- 
ment is the teacher's marching orders to the class. She must 
know what is important, and she must be able to anticipate 
the' difficulties inevitable in every subject. 

But the new type of teaching embraces much more than 
this. The teacher is now to be regarded as a director of study. 
Conditions and methods of effective work are taught and 
supervised. The pupil's whole life is brought into relation 
to his mental task. Instead of being regarded as par excellence 
an imdeveloped intellect the learner is to be treated as an 
unfolding life whose every activity and attitude in some way 
is related to the studying of the assignment in hand. Physio- 
logical, physical, and psychological conditions are given earnest 
attention. The actual method of attacking the new lesson is 
watched and checked at the point of wrong departure I The 
pupil is not allowed to become lost. He is given a map ; he is 
given specific directions for using it; and he is, moreover, 
guided away from treacherous ground. 

The objection often urged that supervised study prevents 
the pupil from relying on himself, is answered sufficiently by 
suggesting that without it he does not rely upon himself, but 
instead enlists family, friends, and classmates in his behalf. 
Home study is harmful, not only because unhygienic, but also 



i 



24 Supervised Study 

because it tempts the pupil to claim as his own work what 
others have done for him. Problems in mathematics, theme 
writing, and outline work are referred to others whenever 
feasible to do so. This is natural. The difficulties are severe, 
the assignments are unreasonably long, and class marks are 
usually impersonal. What is the pupil to do ? Let him with- 
out offense in this t3^e of home study cast the first stone. 

Supervised study means working with the pupil but not 
for him. It is preventive. It deals not merely with subject 
matter, but with methods of learning it, and for this reason it is 
necessary that the teacher for a considerable time devote part 
or most of the class period to this fimdamental of learning. 
The high school pupil must be taught how to think, how to 
organize, and how to apply. 

3. Discriminate Organization. But supervised study in- 
volves even more than all this. By the aid of careful measure- 
ments or scientific investigation the contents of each course 
are analyzed so that its development may be as discriminate 
and balanced as possible. What are the general difficulties 
encoimtered by most pupils in language study, mathematics, 
sciences, etc. ? How can they be either avoided or so antici- 
pated that the pupil will spend less time on the no-progress 
level or get the most effective advantages out of it ? Are all 
parts of a subject equally important ? To what extent can the 
" old line " subjects be rejuvenated into compelling stimuli of 
study ? If a large number of pupils regard English and history 
as useless, this criticism should excite the teacher to an investi- 
gation of the reasons for such antipathy. High school pupils 
are thinking individuals. They are frequently hasty in* their 
judgments and extravagant in their conclusions, but sometimes 
they are right and possessed of electric insight into the frauds, 



The Conception of Supervised Study 25 

the cant, the artificiality of much that flaunts the noble name, 
education. 

These are days of surveys, investigations, experiments, 
scientific doubt. Deduction and opinion are losing caste. 
Authority is being pulled from dusty thrones and cross-ex- 
amined. The millennial bias, that a thing is right because it is 
old, is suffering a twist into a frontal position where the past is 
looked at face to face and respectfully requested to divulge 
by what mystic process it became authoritative in the be- 
ginning. If the evidence is forthcoming and is rational or even 
true to experience, authority will be escorted back to its throne, 
which in the meantime has been well dusted by approved 
methods, let us hope. 

Probably the ancient trivium and quadrivium, if taught in 
the spirit of modem needs, have superior value, but it is im- 
portant that those who teach and those who study imderstand 
why these subjects are included in the educative process. Let 
us throw more light on these subjects, and illuminate the dark 
caves and catacombs of some of these imperial knowledges 
that emperors, kings, and nobles studied as fit only for the high- 
bom. It may be true that all who master them are high born, 
but in a democracy high birth is less significant than high 
achievement. 

4. School Administration. Supervised study sooner or 
later will involve a change of school administration in at least 
four directions. 

(a) Less Home Study. If the function of the school involves 
direction of the pupil's preparation of lessons so that these 
may be learned most successfully, it will be necessary, during 
at least the first year of every new subject, that such directed 
study take place in the school and that home study be omitted 



26 Supervised Study 

as a possible interference because of the forming of unfavorable 
habits of study, fxhe chief objection against abandoning home 
study comes from parents. They still believe that the pupil 
must be kept busy by long home work. ] The favorable results 
of no home study in Joliet, 111., and Sacramento, Cal., doubtless 
can be duplicated elsewhere. When the pupil has received 
considerable training in studying, it will be safe to reqtiire a 
minimum amount of work to be done at home, but the bulk 
of preparation should be done during the study period and vacani 
periods. 

(b) Longer School Day. This has been introduced in several 
schools, f The addition of an hour to the school day with no 
home study is beneficial to pupils and teachers, prgvidiagjiie 
te acher has been freed from the slavery of correcting papers J 
Intellectual work, confined to the school day, allows the pupil 
to play and to engage in supplementary reading or social pas- 
times. If the social life of adolescents must be controlled by 
severe home assignments, it is hardly an advantage to effective 
studying, for the distracting desires and thoughts cannot be 
shut out so easily. In the school the suggestion of study is in 
itself helpful. The group habit is imitated by the individual. 
If, moreover, it is imderstood that the pupil's time for prepara- 
tion is limited to the school hours and that his marks depend 
somewhat upon his industry, it is likely under proper supervi- 
sion that he will prove diligent in this work. The hours out- 
side of school can become rich in the storing away of general 
information, in enjojonent of legitimate pleasures, in play 
and refreshing sleep. 

(c) A New Type of Teacher. The inability of teachers to 
undertake supervised study is due in the main to the fact that 
they have not been trained for this kind of work. Training of 



The Conception of Supervised Study 27 

teachers should now include specific instruction in the organiza- 
tion and direction of this important duty. It is far from the 
author's desire to increase the burdens of an already over- 
worked and sacrificing army of teachers. But he has reason 
to believe^at su pervised 3 tudy will lighten their pre sent 
tasks by relieving them of those details that are now the dis- 



g»»<»W^i(>i>t^liil ■ iUhllMW <■»» fcMl>% ■■ 



tressmg routine of the classroom. C orrection of ma ny pa pe rs, 
flstfinyy rr\Rr\y q^iftSBtionsr3ep CT3ing upon rapid responses in 
recitation for evidence of teaching ability — tiese are ripomy 
resp onsibili ties. Growth in the following qualities that 
doubtless belong to the successful study supervisor would 
spread joy throughout our profession : 

I. Sympathy that rests on a knowledge of the pupil's poiat of 
view. 

3. A broad background of information about the customary 
attitudes of high school pupils. 

3. Tact in dealing with individuals. 

4. ^n^wJfidK^ 9f ^^^t i s implied, in the psycholojay of subj ect 
matter. 

5. Ability to adapt methods to local conditions. 

6. Trustworthiness — respecting the confidences of pupils. 

7. Leadership — involving enthusiasm expressed in real love of 
the subjects taught — an affection based on understanding pur- 
poses, difficulties, and application of the various subjects.^ 

(J) BMer Proportioned Expenditure of Money. Here is the 
rub I Although supervised study in some form of the divided 
period does not require a very great reduction in the size of class, 
a certain increase in the teaching force may be imperative in 
some schools where teachers are expected to handle several 
courses. It is a question of proportioned cost, however. Dr. 
J. Stanley Brown, of Joliet, 111., for example, prefers to spend 



/ 



28 



Supervised Sttcdy 



money in order to prevent repeaters rather than on the repeaters. 
If one estimates the drain of retards and eKminates on the school 
treasury and compares it with the estimated cost of increased 
teaching force, it is likely that the cost will be either so nearly 
the same or so much more wisely appropriated that the treas- 
ury will not be seriously handicapped. 

An interesting statement of cost is furnished by Mr. E. A. 
White, Principal of the High School, Kansas City, Kansas.^ 



Table HI. — Comparative Report for First Six Weeks' Work 

1913-1914 



DxPAXTiaEirr 


No. PtJPTLR IN 

Departmeht 


Cost of Department 
(Instruction Only) 


Cost per Pupil in 
Each Department 




Z913 


1914 


1913 


1914 


1913 


19x4 


English 

Mathematics . . . 

Science 

Foreign Language . 
History .... 
Commercial . . . 

Art 

Manual Arts . . . 
Physical Training 


952 
809 
671 

659 

378 

499 
278 

303 
140 


IOS9 
796 

768 

783 
592 
805 
229 

512 

328 


$1696.00 

1456.00 

1230.50 

1426.50 

675.00 

465.00 

417.00 

994.50 

349.50 


$1846.50 

1479.00 

1252.50 

1468.50 

847.50 

825.00 

424-50 
1024.50 

300.00 


$1.75 
1.80 

1.83 

2.16 

1.79 

.91 

1.50 
3.28 
2.49 


$1.74 
1.86 

1.63 

1.87 

1.43 
1.02 

1.80 

2.00 

.91 


Total . . . 


4679 


5872 


$8710.00 


$9468.00 


$1,861 


$1,613 



Or 25 cents per pupil class, which makes $1.25 for each pupil, 
each having five studies for $12. It makes a saving of $15 
for six weeks and $90 for the year. 

Supervised study was introduced in 1914. The high school 
employs fifty teachers and has an enrollment of over 1200 
pupils. About thirty minutes of each period (there are five 

1 Journal of Educational AdtninistraUon and Supervision^ April, 191 5. 



^ 



The Conception of Supervised Sttidy 29 

sixty-five-minute periods with no laboratory periods) are 
devoted to study directed by the teachers, except in manual 
work and on laboratory days in science. Every teacher 
teaches five periods and five classes. 

V. The Meaning of Supervised Study 

The foregoing comments and analysis have paved the way 
for a more compact statement of the conception of supervised 
study adopted in this book. Supervised study is thai plan of 
school procedure whereby each pupil is so adequately instructed 
and directed in the methods of studying and thinking that his 
daily preparation will progress under conditions most favorable 
to a hygienic, economical, and self-reliant career of intellectual 
endeavor. It seeks to prepare pupils not simply for high 
school graduation or courses in higher education, but to an even 
greater extent for successful coping with problems in a world 
of intense competition, where superior achievement depends 
on initiative, clear thinking, and confidence in one's ability 
to organize experience for new adjustments. What is aimed 
a t in supervised study is an indivi(ji^p1 w^^ is trained to a ttack 
problems, a nd to organize his experiences mto large controlling 
concepts, and who, moreover, has acquired ability to initiate or 
to serve without merely doing what he is told to do. The world 
of business is choked with unthinking imitators who parrot- 
like repeat exactly what has been said, but who cannot be de- 
pended upon to perform a task without being given constant 
and minute directions. 

The world at large, business, and professions, are crying for 
independent thinkers, men and women who see a task and who 
can readily work toward its successful accomplishment without 
being watched at every step. College needs them. Pitiful 



i 



30 Supervised Study 

is the ignorance of students in a library or in their attempt 
to make an original report. Inaccuracies, haste, confusion 
abound. But they were able to enter college simply because 
they had certain imits of subject matter I The world smiles 
and sneers at our ludicrous formalism. The time is ripe for 
another class of yoimg people. Our high schools must face 
the need of producing individuals who, in every phase of school 
life, have been taught the meaning of and have been trained in 
the exercise of accurate, organized, mdependent, and practical 
thinking. 



I 



CHAPTER m 
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 

I. The Transition from Class to Individual 

Instruction 

Supervised study rests partly on the now well-established 
doctrine of individual differences. Class instruction has 
proved ineffective in many respects because it employs arbi- 
trary group standards suited to average or to superior pupils, 
but usually ill adapted to individual traits and capacities 
present inevitably in every class. Individual instruction was 
once the common method of teaching. As formerly employed, 
however, it was wasteful and wholly unscientific. The pupil 
recited at the teacher's desk, while the remainder of the class 
" cut up " and in various ways made it impossible to con- 
duct an effective school. In smaller schools it of course 
worked better, but even here it lacked the backgroimd and 
efficiency that are embraced in the more modem form of 
individual instruction. 

The disadvantages of class methods have been cited by 
many superintendents and teachers. These objections may 
be siunmarized in the criticism that individual pupils are at 
a disadvantage in large groups where, perforce, the rate of 
progress must be determined either by the brightest or by 
the slowest pupils or by the average with resulting injustice 

A 



► 



32 Supervised Study 

to the whole class and to each group in particular. Ob- 
viously, the social law of retribution — the innocent must 
suffer with the guilty — should not mean in school work 
that the bright must conform to the weak or the weak to the 
bright. If there be any sincerity in our American creed of 
democracy, ample provision should be given by the state 
for each individual to reach his maximum in the best and 
quickest way. This is just to the state and fair to the tax- 
payer as well as to the pupil. 

The difficulties of providing a class organization to meet 
this need of individuals are obvious. Elaborate systems 
have been suggested. The St. Louis, Elizabeth, Santa 
Barbara, Cambridge, Le Mars (Iowa), Portland (Ore.), 
Denver (Colo.) plans in this coimtry, and the Charlottenburg 
and Mannheim plans of Germany, have sought to avoid 
class promotions in the elementary grades. The Pueblo 
(Colo.) plan and the several t3^es of organizations discussed 
in the following chapters also aim to modify class teaching 
so as to give a more adequate amoimt of attention to the in- 
dividual. It is at present impossible to judge the superior- 
ity of any of these t3^es of organizations over one another. 
Considerable investigation must be carried on before it will 
be possible to define scientifically the advantages of any one 
above the others for high school purposes. It is interesting, 
however, to note that these attempts at efficient individual 
instruction are current; that there is a return to a type of 
individual instruction which at the same time preserves 
the advantages of class organization, for one must not 
ignore the social as well as the economic needs of group 
teaching.* 

^ W. H. Holmes, School Organization and the Individual Child, Davis Press. 



Individual Differences 33 

II. What is meant by Individual Differences 

When one considers the various kinds of environment, the 
diversity of experiences in a single life, the many possible 
combinations of human traits due to intermarriage and also 
to employment, the overwhelming complexity of the in- 
fluence exerted by the cooperation of the foregoing agencies, 
together with the modifications of innate capacities resulting 
from education, it is not surprising that man should diflfer 
from his fellows in many details. Among many similarities 
by which social groupings are feasible there are diversities 
and differences which stress the fact that however groups 
may have traits in common, individuals within every group 
differ from each other in many respects. Sex, " chance 
variations," opportunities for longer adjustment of one's 
" original nature," restrictions that cage and warp and 
degenerate native ability — all operate to produce variety 
instead of unity in the social order. 

This is not only inevitable — it is the very foxmdation of 
progress. If true that like begets like, there must be agencies 
at work to modify or wholly destroy undesirable duplicates. 
But it is never true that like begets exact likeness. Nature 
could not advance if this were true. Biologists inform us 
that the existence of a million species is not improbable. 
The tendency everywhere notable is an eddy of the like and 
unlike whirling together in an ever changmg advance to some 
unknown ultimate. The ancient philosophy of flux, with 
its tinge of cynicism or perhaps pessimism, has its alluring 
harmonies even to-day. 

Of special importance in education are those subtle differ- 
ences due to the interplay of man and his environment. 



34 Supervised Study 

Whatever man does affects what he is. What man is deter- 
mines in the main what he does. He is constantly under the 
pressure or excitement of this conflict and interaction. The 
school is organized to cultivate in every individual those 
things that make him easily and willingly a part of the world 
of men. But in doing so, teachers must note that a common 
goal need not imply a common method of reaching it. There 
is not one road in learning, but many. 

Considerable impetus was given to a scientific study of 
difference by Dr. E. L. Thomdike and Dr. L. P. Ayres. 
Problems m retardation and elimination, waste, and mental 
types have been receiving, since 1900, wide attention. The 
motive in all this investigative work has been not merely 
to reduce the constantly increasing cost of education, but 
to make the ultimate product of school work as efficient as 
present equipment renders possible. The final outcome of this 
campaign of investigation and experimentation will involve, as 
it already does in some school systems, a thoroughly revised 
method of school and class management. The Junior BQgh 
School is one result of this movement ; vocational education 
is another; supervised study, a third. Curriculum reor- 
ganizations other than purely vocational are also based on 
this wholesome study of individual differences. 

In the interest of supervised study individual differences 
will be discussed from three angles : (i) individual abilities ; 
(2) individual image t3^es ; (3) individual dispositions. 

III. Differences in Individual Abilities 

I . Differences in Rate and Amount of Work. In the limited 
space of this book it will be impossible to do more than cite 
a very few illustrations of how peculiar are the differences of 



b 



Individual Differences 35 

abilities among individuals. Thomdike directs attention 
to what experienced teachers well know, — namely, that 

''the teacher of a class, even in a school graded as closely as is 
possible in large cities, where two classes are provided in each build- 
ing for each grade and where promotion occurs every six months, 
will find in the case of any kind of work some pupil who can do 
from two to five times as much in the same time or do the same 
amount from two to five times as well, as some other pupil." ^ 

a. Illustrations of Differences from Thomdike. Illustra- 
tions of such differences are given by Thomdike in the book 
referred to.* 

Thomdike gives two Latin translations, of which portions 
are quoted below. 

Two translations made by two pupils (A and B) of the 
same grade and class (and age). 

The passage to be translated was as follows : 

Atticus adolescentulus propter aflinitatem P. Sulpicii, qui tri- 
bunus plebe interfectus est, non expers f uit illius pericuU. Namque 
Anicia, Pomponii consobrina, supserat (M.) Servio, fratri Sulpicii. 
Itaque interfecto Sulpicio, posteaquam vidit Cinnano tumultus 
civitatem esse perturbatam neque sibi dari facultatem pro dignitate 
Vivendi, q\iin alterutram partem offenderet, dissociatis animis 
civium, cum alii Sullanis, alii Cinnanis faverent partibus, idoneiun 
tempus ratus studiis obsequendi suis, Athenas se contulit. 

A's Translation 

Atticus a young man because of his friendship with Sulpicius, the 
tribune of the people who was killed was not free from this danger. 
For Anicia the wife of Pomponius had nursed Servius, brother of 

* Principles of Teaching, p. 73. 

• Quoted also by Parker, op, cit., pp. 368-377. 



36 Supervised Study 

Sulpicius. And so after Sulpicius was killed and after he saw that 
the state was aroused by the revolt of Cmna and that no oppor- 
tunity was given for him to live in accordance with his dignity 
without offending one or other of the parties, for the minds of the 
people were divided, some favoring the party of Sulla, some that 
of Cinna, and after he thought it was a proper time for pursuing his 
studies, he betook himself to Athens. 

B's Translation 

Atticus a youth on account of P. Sulpicus who was a tribune 
of the people, was not of his danger. And for Anicia, of 
Pompey, had , the father of Sulpicuo. And so by the killing 
of Sulpicius, after he saw the state to be disturbed by a tumult nor 
to give to himself the ability on account of his dignity, that might 
offend the other part, the imassociated minds of the citizens, with 
some Sullani other Cinnane might be favored by some the time 
was followed with their desires, Athens carried itself. 

A similar contrast appears in the algebra papers. These 
papers were written by two pupils, A and B, members of the 
same class, in a test in algebra. The test on which they were 
based is given below. 

Do these examples as quickly as you can. 

Do not copy them, but put the work right under each example. 

Take the quickest way you can to get the correct answers. 



I. Simplify fa^ - ¥\fx' - ^ f c^ \ 

\x - y A a - b J\x + y J 



2. What are the values of x and y if 

5x + sy = S and jx - sy = 4 

3. A shepherd, being asked how many sheep he had in his flock, 
said, "If I had as many more, half as many more, and seven sheep 
and a half, I should then have 500." How many sheep had he ? 



\ 



Individual Differences 37 

4. What axe the values of x and y if 

X — y X — y 23 

5. Simplify m + n . m — n 

fit — n tn -\- n 
in — ft m -\- n 
m -\- fi m — n 

6. If, to the double of a certain number, 14 be added, the sum 
is 154. What is the nimiber? 

A's Paper 

(i) <?(a + b) (3) Let x = no. sheep 

(2) 12 rx; = 12 x + x + ix + 'j^ = 500 

X = 1 2X +\x = SCO — 7§ 

y = 1 2^ X = 492^ 

^X-^x = 107 sheep 

197 
(6) Let X = Number 
2 a; + 14 = 154 

2 oc = 154 - 14 
oc = 2? ^^ number 

B's Paper 

(i) ^* "^ x ^"^^ ^ fl^- 2fly-y 

«— y a^^+y^ 0? — 2xy^ — 'f 
(fi — 2dt^ — l^ c^ (fi<? — 2 atl^c^ — t^(? 



x* — 2 x^ — y^ X + y a:*— 4 aj^y* — 2 ocy* — y* 

(2) S ^ + 3 y • 8 : : 7 ^ - 3 3^ • 4 (s) m^ - 2mn -n^ 

i2x:6y::S:4 m^ — 2 mn — r? 

x\y\:2:i m^ — 2 mn — n^ 

X = 2 nfi — 2 mn — n^ 

y = I 



i 



38 Supervised Study 

Under present methods of teaching, A and B would be 
given practically the same treatment in the class, A receiving 
a higher class mark, but B would retard the progress of the 
whole class at this point and much of A's time would be 
sheer waste. 

b. An Illustration of Difference by Monroe, Another 
illustration of this difference in ability is furnished by Dr. 
Walter S. Monroe.^ Six tests were given to first-year high 
school pupils in two city high schools in March, 1914. In 
both schools the pupils doing unsatisfactory work at the 
middle of the year were placed in a beginning class, but these 
pupils were not given the tests. 

It is imnecessary here to go into any of the details of the 
test beyond some of the results. Mr. Monroe says : 

"One student performed 34 multiplications in three minutes, 
while in the same time another pupil performed only 3 multiplica- 
tions. . . . The average nmnber attempted is 17.3, which is 
almost exactly half of the maximum number. There is a large 
nmnber of students who worked more rapidly than this average 
and also many who worked less rapidly. ... In test A class 8 
has an average of 21.5 examples attempted, while class 5 has an 
average of 12.2. Since these classes are from the same school, the 
difference in ability is due to the difference in the instruction or in 
the native ability of the students. . . . The average of class 10 
is nearly three examples less than that of class 12. . . . 

"In test B, 67 students or 34 per cent failed to get a single 
example right." 

Monroe foxmd also some interesting correlations between 
accuracy and speed. 

* "A Test of the Attainments of First-year High School Students in Algebra/* 
School Review, 19 14. 



Individual Differences 39 

"This high degree of correlation means that of these high school 
students, the ones who work rapidly work with a relatively higher 
degree of accuracy than those who work more slowly. This is 
contrary to the popular belief that those who work slowly work 
with greater care and accuracy. Evidentiy students who work 
rapidly may be just as accurate as those who work slowly. In fact, 
the data here show that they are superior in accuracy. Thus, 
accuracy must depend upon some factor other than the speed with 
which the student works. This being true it seems reasonable to 
expect that accuracy can be developed independentiy of speed, and 
that its development is not to be secured just by cautioning the 
student to work more slowly." 

2. Differences of Ability according to Subject. There is 
a popular theory abroad to the effect that some people are 
" bom short " in a certain subject — mathematics being a 
favorite illustration — and for this reason it is unfair to re- 
quire these " bom shorts " to study the subjects in which 
they have no native ability. Two studies bearing on this 
phase of individual differences will be considered briefly. 

a. An Experiment in Correlation. Two students, Mr. L. 
E. Frailly and C. M. Grain, of the School of Education at 
the University of Illinois, undertook " to find, if possible, the 
correlation which might exist between (i) the standing of a 
pupil in one subject and his standing in other subjects, (2) 
the standing of a pupil during one year and his standing in 
succeeding years." Other interests were included in the 
investigation, references to which are made in the discussion 
on sex differences. The investigation was made at the high 
school of Urbana, HI., through the courtesy of its principal, 
Mr. M. L. Flannigan. The records of pupils for the past 
six years were examined in order to select a group of pupils 



1 

I 



40 Supervised Study 

whose study experiences had apparently been identical in 
all respects. Thirty-two pupils were thus found who had all 
enrolled in the Urbana High School in the fall of 1908 and 
graduated in the spring of 191 2; who had studied algebra, 
dvics, American history, geometry, Latin, and English imder 
the same instructors during the four years; who had also 
studied English four years imder the same instructors ; who 
in other respects were as nearly alike mentally, physically, 
and morally as is possible among individuals. 

The method of comparison observed the following plan. 
The 32 pupils were divided into four groups of equal numbers. 
If any correlation were evident, pupils of Group I in algebra, 
for example, would also be in Group I in civics. A perfect 
correlation would show that each group in each subject con- 
tained the names of the same pupils. Each pupil was given 
the same niunber in all the subjects. The composite table 
on facing page shows the results for each pupil in each 
subject, the Roman numerals referring to the groups. 

Perfect group correlation is shown by 4, 5, and 8 of Group 
I; and by 27 and 32 in Group IV. Groups II and III lack 
complete correlation. 

The investigators concluded : (i) that there is a correlation 
of excellence in the various subjects of study ; (2) that the most 
perfect correlation exists among the brightest and among 
the most stupid children ; (3) that the least perfect corre- 
lation exists among the pupils of medium ability; and (4) 
that it is rare for a pupil to represent both extremes of the 
excellence distribution. The detailed tables (not dted here) 
show the interesting facts that pupil i ranked first in algebra 
and American history, and pupil 8 ranked first in civics, 
geometry, and English (4 years). Pupil 4 ranked first in 



Individual Dijferences 



41 



Table IV. Ranks op Pupils by Subjects 



Pupn. No. 


Algebra 


Civics 


History 


Geometry 


Latin 




I 




I 


I 


I 


I 


n 


2 




IV 


IV 


I 


n 


TTT 


3 




I 


11 


I 


I 


I 


4 




I 


I 


I 


I 


I 


S 




I 


I 


I 


I 


I 


6 




n 


11 


III 


ITT 


m 


7 




IT 


n 


III 


ni 


11 


8 




I 


I 


I 


I 


I 


9 


n 


n 


I 


II 


. ill 


n 


10 


u 


I 


II 


IV 


I 


I 


II 


n 


JU 


III 


n 


II 


n 


12 


n 


I 


II 


II 


I 


I 


13 


n 


II 


ni 


III 


n 


ni 


14 


11 


II 


II 


IT 


II 


I 


IS 


II 


III 


in 


IV 


n 


n 


16 


11 


I 


I 


II 


I 


I 


17 


m 


n 


I 


III 


III 


n 


18 


III 


IV 


IV 


II 


111 


in 


19 


ill 


IT 


ni 


ni 


111 


n 


20 


III 


III 


11 


I 


n 


III 


21 


III 


III 


I 


IV 


IV 


m 


22 


III 


IV 


III 


IV 


IV 


IV 


23 


m 


111 


IV 


n 


TT 


NT 


24 


HI 


in 


IT 


I 


III 


IV 


25 


IV 


11 


II 


in 


rv 


n 


26 


IV 


IV 


rv 


ni 


rv 


IV 


27 


IV 


IV 


rv 


IV 


IV 


IV 


28 


IV 


IV 


in 


IV 


IV 


IV 


29 


IV 


rv 


IV 


IT 


in 


IV 


30 


IV 


TTI 


in 


IV 


IV 


in 


31 


IV 


111 


111 


111 


11 


IV 


32 


IV 


IV 


IV 


IV 


IV 


IV 



Latin but fourth in algebra, fifth in civics, third in American 
history, second in English (4 years), and tied with pupil 8 
for first rank in geometry. Pupil 32 is colored. Of the 32 
pupils numbers 17, 18, 22, 30, and 32 were most prominent in 



42 Supervised Study 

athletics, all of these pupils being in the slower groups. But, 
on the other hand, pupils i and 3, ranking among the 
highest, were most active in other outside features of school 
Ufe. 

From this investigation it may be concluded that the 
bom-short theory is not as formidable as some are led to 
believe. High ability is general. Excellence in one subject 
seems to indicate excellence in other studies. Mediocrity is 
also general, lack of ability not being confined necessarily to 
a particular subject, but evincing itself in practically all. 

b. A Pupil " bom Short," Dr. Jesse White, Dean of the 
Department of Psychology at the University of Pittsburgh, 
related to the writer a short time ago an experience with a yoimg 
lady student of the University. She failed in mathematics and, 
on petition to the faculty to be excused from this requirement, 
was granted permission to drop the subject because she was 
unable after conscientious effort to complete the course. 
Later she enrolled for courses leading to the master's degree, 
selecting psychology as her major study. Dr. White sug- 
gested that she undertake the study of mathematics as an 
interesting experiment in psychology. The professor of psy- 
chology and the yoimg lady who had repeatedly failed in 
mathematics went over the old groimd of the subject. They 
met the diflBiculties that she had foimd insurmoimtable. By 
patient, thoroughgoing analysis of each diflBiculty the student 
gradually became embarrassed and finally in confusion admitted 
that her petition had been a mistake. She could have passed 
in mathematics. By careful " study-coaching " her apparent 
" bom shortness " became a vain delusion. 

This does not mean that all pupils can under the most 

vorable conditions attain to Group I. Differences there 




Individual Differences 43 

are bound to be, but they are not as serious in this connection 
as many believe. The differentiation of school curriculums 
should not rest chiefly on a basis of pupils being wholly 
unable to pass this or that subject. Curriculums, it would 
seem, need reorganization largely on the basis of superior or 
average abilities. The bright pupils deserve a different 
treatment from the average or mediocre. 

c. A Stiidy of Pupils' Marks, The second part of the 
investigation imder discussion is equally significant. The 
standing of the same 32 pupils during one year was compared 
with their marks during the successive years. English was 
chosen. The composite table on next page indicates the 
results. 

It will be noted that perfect group correlation is shown by 
pupils 8, 4, 16, 12, and 10 in Group I, by 17 and 19 in Group 
II, by 20 in Group III, by 22, 29, 28, 27, and 32 in Group IV. 
Thirteen out of thirty-two pupils, nearly one third, were in 
the same group for four years. No pupil appeared in all the 
groups. The authors conclude that (i) there is a correlation 
of excellence in successive years of study ; (2) the most per- 
fect correlation exists among the brightest and among the 
most stupid children (I and IV) ; (3) the least perfect correla- 
tion exists in the medium group, representing students of 
average ability ; and (4) never, so far as shown by their test, 
and probably very rarely in any case, does a pupil rank among 
the brightest students one year and among the most stupid 
another. 

An additional conclusion of the authors deserves careful 
attention. " A more perfect correlation exists between 
excellence in one study during succeeding years than exists 
between excellwce in various studies of different nature -r- 



s 



44 



Supervised Study 



the same pupils appear in each group for both correlations, 
thus inviting the conclusion that, with the group studied, 
ability and stupidity are not only fairly constant in successive 
years of study." 

Table V. — Ranks of Puph^ in English Coxtsses 



Pupil No. 


English i 


English 2 


English 3 


Engush 4 


8 


I 


I 


I 


I 


4 


I 


I 


I 


I 


5 


I 


I 


II 


n 


i6 


I 


I 


I 


I 


3 


I 


I 


n 


n 


12 


I 


I 


I 


I 


lO 


I 


I 


I 


I 


14 


I 


U 


TT 


I 


25 


TT 


n 


I 


n . 


I 


u 


III 


II 


n 


9 


TT 


II 


I 


n 


17 


II 


11 


II 


TT 


II 


U 


u 


Til 


TIT 


IS 


II 


I 


I 


n 


6 


II 


111 


111 


m 


19 


n 


11 


11 


n 


24 


ra 


IV 


IV 


III 


2 


111 


n 


IV 


TIT 


20 


ni 


ra 


111 


in 


31 


III 


IV 


IV 


NT 


i8 


TIT 


111 


II 


IV 


7 


TTI 


TTI 


m 


I 


13 


III 


IV 


11 


III 


21 


III 


III 


III 


I 


22 


IV 


IV 


IV 


IV 


30 


IV 


III 


III 


IV 


26 


IV 


III 


III 


IV 


29 


IV 


IV 


IV 


TV 


28 


IV 


IV 


IV 


IV 


27 


IV 


IV 


IV 


IV 


32 


IV 


IV 


IV 


IV 


23 


IV 


in 


111 


III 



Individtud Differences 45 

3. Differences in Ability according to Sex. Various 
opinions are afloat concerning the relative abilities of boys 
and girls. Investigations in this field do not give as definite 
and final conclusions as one may desire and as doubtless will be 
possible in years to come. According to Netschajeff, boys are 
better able to learn objects directly perceptible, while girls 
prefer concrete experience. Lobsein concludes from his experi- 
ments that girls at all ages are superior to boys in all spatial 
memories (except imintelligible terms). The most striking 
differences between memories of boys and girls appear between 
the ages of eleven and fourteen. During this period girls show 
a superior memory-development to boys, but from the age of 
fourteen on boys overtake the girls. Lobsein found also 
that boys are superior to girls in all types of memory except 
that for real things. 

a. The Pyle Data. Pyle^ has found that girls between 
the ages of nine and fifteen (excepting age of eleven) possess 
a better memory for ideas than do boys. The following curve 
makes his conclusion clear : 

SD 



40 



ao 



20 




MBNTALJBFFrCIBNCY OF BOYS JkND GIKLS 

BY AGES 



AGE 



8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 

^ Outlines of Educational Psychology, 3d edition, p. 259. 



46 



Supervised Study 



Other investigators have found that boys develop memory 
for objects first ; then words of visual content ; next words of 
auditory content, soimds, terms denoting tactual and motor 
experiences, numbers, abstract conceptions ; and lastiy emo- 
tional terms. For girls the order of development is somewhat 
different ; words of visual content, objects, soimds, numbers, 
abstract conceptions; words of auditory content, terms denoting 
tactual and motor experiences ; and finally emotional terms.^ 

b. The Monroe Data. In the investigation already cited 
Mr. Monroe foimd that " there is no evidence in support 
of the frequentiy expressed belief that girls excel boys in 
facility in algebra, for in three of the tests the average number 
attempted by the boys is higher than the corresponding aver- 
age for the girls, and in the other three tests the conditions are 
reversed. In every test the boys showed superior accuracy." 

c. The Minnick Data. J. H. Minnick ^ from an elaborate 
investigation concludes that " girls are the equals of the 
boys although they do not excel to the same degree in mathe- 
matics as they do in some of the other subjects, especially in 
language and English. In studying retarded pupils he reached 
results, some of which are represented in the following tables : 



^ 



Table VI. — Percentage or Students taking Each Subject keta&ded 

BY THAT SU^BJECT 





Matueuatics 


Engltkh 


Language 


History 


Science 


Boys .... 
Girls .... 


49.3 
46.5 


25.5 
25.5 


41.1 
29.1 


29.5 

30- S 


27.5 
24.9 


Differences . . 


+ 2.8 


00.0 


+ 12.0 


— I.O 


+ 2.6 



^ Rusk, Experimental Education ^ p. 82. 

* " A Comparative Study of the Mathematical Abilities of Boys and Girls," 
School Review, Vol. XXIII, February, 1915, pp. 73-84. 



Individual Differences 



47 



Tlie table shows that a smaller percentage of girls than of 
boys is retarded by mathematics. In the order of differences 
the subjects occupy the following positions: language, 
mathematics, science, English, history. 

Table VH. — Avekagb Grades of Students retarded in Any Subject 





Mathematics 


y^ft\.«n^ 


Language 


HnrroRY 


SCTBNCB 


Bo3rs .... 
Girls. . . . 


77.9 
80.5 


77.4 
80.1 


63.7 
71.1 


79.7 
76.0 


78.4 
77.0 


Differences . . 


4-2.6 


+ 2.7 


+ 74 


-3.7 


-1.4 



These and other tables show that in five points considered, 
the girls excel in two and the boys in three. " A smaller 
percentage of all girls than of all boys in the high school is 
retarded by mathematics, and the retarded girls have a higher 
average in mathematics than do the retarded boys ; while, on 
the other hand, among the group of retarded students, mathe- 
matics seems to give more difficulty to the girls than it does 
to the boys." 

The examination of pupils eliminated from the high school 
shows in Mr. Minnick's study that " mathematics does not 
seem to be a much stronger element in the elimination of 
girls than it is in the elimination of boys. A study of the 
relative achievements of boys and girls in the various subjects 
reveals the fact that the difference of achievements in mathe- 
matics is less than in English and in language." 

Minnick's general conclusion from the investigation of 
records in a single high school are significant. He writes: 

"We may conclude that taking the entire student body into con- 
sideration, the boys and girls do about the same grade of work in 
mathematics. Among the retarded students, mathematics has 



48 Supervised Study 

given slightly more trouble to girls than to boys. Mathematics 
seems also to have been a sUghtly stronger factor in the elimination 
of girls than in the eUmination of boys. When we compare the 
relative achievements of the girls with those of the boys, we find 
that the girls have done decidedly better in language and English 
than they have in mathematics, history, and science. However, 
if measured by ability to achieve, mathematics is about as well 
suited to girls as are history and science." 

d. Frailey-Crain Data. In their investigation discussed 
in this chapter, Frailey and Grain found data that in the 
main confirm Minnick's. Their conclusions follow: (i) the 
average girl is as good a student in algebra and geometry 
as the average boy, — in fact, perhaps slightly better ; (2) the 
average girl student excels the average boy student in Latin 
to a greater degree than in any of the subjects selected ; (3) 
the average girl seems to be slightly more intelligent than the 
average boy or perhaps she goes less into outside activities 
and, therefore, gives more time to the preparation of her 
studies ; and (4) in none of the six subjects does the average 
boy excel the average girl. 

But in the scale of general attainments these authors foimd 
" that (i) boys are more likely to rank at the top of the grade 
scale and (2) that they are also more likely to rank at the 
bottom of the grade scale. In short, the generally accepted 
theory that the chances for either exceptional ability or ex- 
ceptional dullness are greater among boys than among girls 
is borne out by our group." 

General Conclusion. In the light of the foregoing data — 
representative of many others — it is hardly wise to draw 
any conclusion as to the relative abilities of boys and girls. 
What differences there are are so small and so easily reversed 



Individual Differences 49 

that it would be hazardous to base any reorganization of 
class procedure on the ground of sex alone. Abilities, it 
may be said, differ among individuals, not between the sexes. 
Probably it is unnecessary, in the light of present data, to have 
groups in classes segregated on the groimd of sex. Boys and 
girls may well work together in all groups. 

n. Individual Differences in Image Types 

Quite recent investigations point to the fact that people 
differ from one another in the way they receive mental im- 
pressions. In school pupils do not receive instruction or 
suggestions by similar mental reactions. Colvin^ discusses 
at length the nature of the various kinds of images and calls 
attention to the fact that there is at present a tendency to 
abandon the doctrine of image types. As will be seen later in 
this chapter, however, there is evidence that high school pupils 
" possess a greater vividness of imagery in one sense depart- 
ment than in others," although it is highly probable that 
most persons belong to a mixed type " with predominating 
types for certain classes of sensory or verbal material." 

The significance of this condition becomes clearer by a 
simple classification or analysis. People who learn and recall 
experiences by a distinct mental picture of them are called 
visuals. They possess a photographic mind. In school such 
pupils can see the picture of the page from which they are 
reciting. Whatever is written on the blackboard is remem- 
bered with comparative ease. But other persons recall only 
with difficulty what they have read or seen. They find it 
easier to remember what has been said or read to them. 

* "The Nature of the Mental Image," Psychological Review, Vol. XV, 1908, 
pp. 158^168, and The Learning Process, 191 1, pp. 105-115. 

i 



so 



Supervised Study 



Their type of mind might be called phonographic. There is 
a third group of individuals who depend less upon vision and 
hearing and principally on " muscle memory," on subtle im- 
pressions that are reproduced by muscle feeling. They are 
the moteurs, the motor minded. 

Persons depending on visual memory find it easy to 
remember colors, forms, position of objects with considerable 
accuracy. They can vision the location of words on a page, 
lists of names, niunbers, etc. Written examinations and 
book work are easy for this type. The auditiles or ear 
minded retain soimd impressions and reproduce them readily 
in soimd, in form, or by some other means. Others, again, 
learn by doing, by acting out for themselves what they have 
read or have been told. The last named employ principally 
kinaesthesic imagery, i,e, muscle images. 

William Chancellor ^ reports an investigation on image 
types among school people. A study of the following parallel 
outline shows some of his results : 

Table VIII. — Image Types 



Elementary Pxtpils under xa Years or Age 



Image Type 



Notably auditoiy . . . 
Notably visual .... 
Superior auditory and 

visual 

Mediocre auditory and 

visual 

Inferior auditory and 

visual 

Greatly deficient auditory 

and visual .... 
Virtually imbecile in these 

senses 



Per Cent 



55 
IS 

13 
18 

4 

3 

z 



High School Pxtfus 



Image Type 



Notably auditory . . . 
Notably visual .... 
Superior auditory and 

visual 

Mediocre auditory and 

visual 

Inferior auditory and 

visual 

Greatly deficient auditory 

and visual .... 
Virtually imbecile in these 

senses 



Per Cent 



8 
60 

16 

Z2 

4 
o 

o 



^ Journal of Education^ April 29, 1915. 



Individual Differences 51 

The table shows that children under twelve leam more easily 
by hearing or by being told, while high school pupils learn 
more readily by reading or by seeing the data to be learned. 
Chancellor refers to the case of his oldest daughter. He says : 

" She always did well the second time she went through a subject, 
which occurred in unhappily nimierous cases, and especially where 
the teacher was a good expositor and did not rely upon books. In 
college work, she secured the highest kinds of marks with the 
brilliant lecturers, and by no means such marks with the men who 
gave immense amounts of reading to do. She got on well in quizzes, 
and but poorly in written examinations. She plays the violin. 
And that was the key to the case. She was discovered to be highly 
auditory and notably non-visual." 

Another case dted by Chancellor illustrates a second type : 

"My next case to be closely studied was that of a newspaper 
rqwrter. In two days' examinations, I proved to his city editor 
that he ought to be considered a criminal in employing him to 
report oral interviews. This reporter was an almost perfect visu- 
alist and extremely rapid writer. But he could not remember a 
soitence of eight words thirty seconds after hearing it. On the 
other hand, in one hundred and twenty seconds, he could easily 
memorize thirty words of either prose or verse. He admitted that 
he nev&c dreamed conversations nor hummed tunes." 

These illustrations, interesting for the information they 
contain, are su^estive of what is necessary in the high 
school. Block or mass teaching cannot give sufficient atten- 
tion to varying mental types. It should be noted, however, 
that the employment of two kinds of teaching, for example, 
the visual and the oral, is less effective than using only one. 
It has been found, to be more specific, that the teacher makes 
a mistake if using the blackboard and employing the oral 



$2 Supervised Study 

method during the same period and for the same group. 
Chancellor, in the study already discussed, suggests reorganiz- 
ing the class into at least three groups : the visual, the audi- 
tory, the mediocre or worse in both types, and giving each 
group the kind of instruction best adapted to its type of 
mind. This can be done in the supervised study period dis- 
cussed in another chapter. 

Attention should be called to the fact already hinted at, 
that probably there are no pure mental types. On the other 
hand, there are what Meumann classifies as object types, 
including minds readily stimulated by any sense organ, and 
word types with the combinations of verbal-visual, verbal- 
acoustic, verbal-tactile, and kinaesthetic types. Colvin^ 
cites as illustration of the object type the reviving of the 
appearance of a rose — a concrete visual image ; recalling 
its odor — a concrete olfactory image; recalling the sensa- 
tion of touching its petals — a concrete tactile image. To 
recall the movement of drawing away from the thorns on a 
rosebush would be a concrete motor or kinaesthetic image. 
But if one thinks simply of the word " rose," there is a verbal 
image ; to remember the exact place on the page where " rose " 
is printed is a verbal-visual image. If one recalls the name 
" rose " as having been spoken by some one, the experience is 
called a verbal-acoustic image. Again, a verbal-motor image 
consists of recalling the word " rose " in the terms of throat 
movements used in pronoimdng it or the terms of muscle 
movements used in writing the word on the blackboard or 
on paper. Some people think of a word as they would write 
it. This is a verbal-motor image. Colvin suggests that the 
latter kind of images usually arise in company with verbal 

* Op, cU.f pp. 107, 108. 



% 



Individual Differences S3 

speech-motor images. He says : " Attempt to spell a word 
merely by forming the letters with a pen or pencil, and you 
will find yourself probably either actually pronoimcing the 
letters or reviving images involved m pronouncing them/' ^ 
This phase of individual differences must not be discussed 
without a well-deserved reference to " the other side of the 
story." Thomdike * in criticizing the doctrine of multiple 
types says : 

" Fact showed opinion to have been grossly in error as a result 
of its assumption that distinct types of some sort there must be. 
The contrary is true. Instead of distinct types or many * mixed ' 
types, there is one type — mediocrity. Instead of antagonism 
between the development of imagery from one sense and that 
from other senses there is a dose correlation." 

In support of his position Thomdike considers some argu- 
ments in favor of the single-type theory. These in substance 
are: (i) Exact measurements favor the single-type theory. 
Advocates of the many-type theory have failed to use the 
exact measurements employed by defenders of the single- 
type theory. (2) There are really only a very few instances 
of one type excluding another type of mind. (3) "Satis- 
factory proof of the existence of a distribution of human 
individuals after the fashion demanded by the multiple-type 
theory has never been given in a single case, and the evidence 
offered by even the most scientific of the theory's adherents is 
such as they would certainly themselves consider very weak if 
they were not certain that types of some sort there must be." 

^ Teachers should study carefully this subject of image types as discussed, 
for example, by Colvin in The Learning Process or by Colvin and Bagley in 
Human Behavior. The latter volume is an excellent introduction to the study 
of psychology. 

* Educational Psychology, Vol. m, Chapter XVI, p. 374 ff. 




54 Supervised Study 

Thomdike's position seems to be that individuals vary 
gradually from a single type called mediocrity — some reach- 
ing an extreme brilliance, others extreme deficiency. There 
are probably no pure or exclusive types, but instead a long 
series of overlapping traits. Consequently, grouping by 
topics is practically impossible. Chancellor's study, however, 
seems to supply data that make the multitype theory at 
least worthy of more investigation and consideration in deal- 
ing with individual pupils. A study of biographies, as, for 
example, those of Poincar6, the mathematician, and of Zola, 
suggests to the writer that wide differences of types of mind 
are illustrated in these men. In the chapter on " Methods of 
Studying," Rickard's investigation also suggests individual 
differences of mental type. 

Summary. There is enough evidence supporting the doc- 
trine of image types to warrant teachers noting these differ- 
ences and applying methods of individual instruction suit- 
able to each type. It is likely that three divisions of such 
types would be ample. 

III. Differences of Character and Disposition, Etc. 

It is quite impossible to deal adequately with the pupils 
unless one understands something of their dispositions and 
takes these into careful consideration when judging their 
work or attitude toward school life. The following suggest 
the kinds of analyses necessary imder this head : 

I. An Illinois Scheme. The following plan was suggested 
at a seminar in the University of Illinois. The phases bear- 
ing on our topic embrace several considerations. 




Individual Differences 



55 



Proposed System of Advice and Guidance for Junior and 

Senior High Schools 

I. Begin with seventh grade and continue through the high 
school. 

n. System of "Teacher Advisors/' Men for boys, women for 
girls, 2$ pupils to advisor (or more if enough good advisors cannot 
be foimd on plan suggested). Appoint at begin n ing of school year. 
Provide for it on daily program, if possible, crediting it on 
teachers' daily schedule. Get local and other public men and 
women to address these advisors throughout the year. 

a. To conduct an industrial survey of the city by the pupils 
from observation, visits, etc., including in reports the kind of indus- 
try, people employed, wages paid, moral conditions and dangers, 
health conditions, possibilities of advancement, etc. 

b. To compile card index of individual health, mental traits 
and interests, family traits and occupations, social conditions, and 
expectancy in years of schooling of all pupils as follows : 

INDIVIDUAL TRAITS 

Card Index (to be recorded by niunbers) 

I. Name School 

Date of birth Nationality 

Parents' name Residence 



Health and physical 


Height 




characteristics (from 


Weight 


Eyes 


the physician) 


Sense organs 


Ears 




a. Prompt 






b. Responsible 






c. Impulsive 




2. Character 


d. Careless 

e. Shiftless 
/. Lazy 






g. Habit-f( 


arming power 





56 



Supervised Study 



3. Intellectual capacity 



4. Intellectual habits 
and characteristics 



5. Attention 



6. Special interests 



7. Social capacities 



8. Habits 



a. Able 

b. Bright 

c. Average 

d. DuU 

a. Studious 

b. Industrious 

c. Irregular 

d. Lazy 

e. Original 
/. Matter-of-fact 
g. Accuracy 
h. Endurance 
i. Strength 
j. Quickness 
k. Adaptability 

a. Flexible 

b. Wandering 

c. Persistent imder difficulties 

a. General interests 

b. Bookish interests 

c. Mechanical interests (machineSy etc.) 

d. Laboratory interests 

e. Artistic interests 
/. Nature interests 
g. Indifferent interests 

a. Companionable 

b. Leader 

c. Follower 

d. Love of game and physical skill 

e. Love of indoor games 

a. Habits made 

b. Habits broken 

c. Good habits at present 
,d. Bad habits at present 



Individual Differences 



57 



2. Pyle's Scheme. Professor Pyle^ offers the following 
Mental Record as a guide in this kind of analysis : 



Date of birth. Yr.. 
Name in full 



MENTAL RECORD 
Mo. Day. 



Record Standing by Rank, Disposition by a Word 



Date 



Attention 



Invention 



Associa- 
tion 



Learning 
Capacity 



Rote 
Memory 



Logical 
Memory 



Imagi- 
nation 



Disposi- 

TK>NOR 

Temper- 
ament 



FlOXTKE I 

1 Op. cU., p. 265. 



d 



$8 Supervised Study 

3. Bagley's Classification of Troublesome Cases. In 

his book on School Discipline^ Dr. Bagley classifies pupils 
into the following groups : 

a. The stubborn pupil. e. The morose pupU. 

b. The haughty pupil. /. The hypersensitive pupil. 

c. The self-complacent pupil. g. The deceitful pupil. 

d. The irresponsible pupil. h. The vicious pupiL 

The list is suggestive of what must be done in dealing with 
high school boys and girls. The following tentative analysis 
is offered with the hope that other lists may be devised for 
publication and eventual standardization. 

4. A Tentative Analysis of High School Pupils' Dispositions 
as related to Studying. While serving as study-coach the 
writer had many opportimities to note wherein pupils differ 
from one another in their attitude toward school life. He 
f oimd the following types : 

a. The timid pupil — easily misjudged ; hesitates to assert his 
rights. 

b. The overconfident pupil — likes to be prominent ; may resent 
explanations. 

c. The impulsive pupil — sees things at once but superficially. 

d. The careless pupil — imreliable in details. 

e. The industrious but not brilliant pupil — deserves recognition. 
/. The brilliant but lazy pupil — should be warned. 

g. The all-round pupil — can and does leam easily. 
A. The resentful pupil — low marks or criticism offend him. 
i. The indifferent pupil — an enigma often; hard to arouse, 
seek for his chief interest. 

j. The artistic pupil — very neat. 

k. The social pupil — prefers clubs and social life in general. 

^ Macmillan, 191 5, Chapter Xin. 



Individual Differences 59 

The foregoing analyses illustrate that the classroom is 
made up of a heterogeneous number of individuals who 
must be adjusted to some group conformity. It should not 
be expected, however, that complete adjustment is possible, 
even if it were desirable. Individuals need to be adjusted, 
but this harmonizing with group standards must take place 
by leading each individual according to his type of responses. 

5. The Detroit System of Records. The following blank 
is used by the Liggett School of Detroit, Mich. A report of 
the system describes its details as follows in tables on p. 60.^ 

This blank is filled out for each individual and serves first 
to give a large body of detailed information with regard to 
the pupil's work. Second, it permits a comparison of the 
pupil with himself rather than with other members of the 
class. Such a report is filed in the principal's office every 
two months and is made the basis of coiiferences and inter- 
views with the pupil and his parents. 

A somewhat different blank is used in sending notices to 
parents. This blank contains the following statement by 
way of explanation of the record. " Our system of reports 
is based on the conviction that a teachers' judicious recogni- 
tion of success and failure, of cause and effect, of effort and 
achievement, is helpful to the workers. So far as possible 
we wish to destroy the habit of competition with others and 
establish a true conception of the value of self-management." 
This home report then gives for each study taken by the 
pupil a statement of the pupil's achievement, preparation, 
attitude, deportment, and attendance. The filing and 
handling of these reports involves somewhat more labor than 
is represented in conventional pupils' reports. There can be 

^ School Review f 191 5. 



6o 

Year. 



Supervised SPudy 

Months of Sq>t. and Oct. 



Name. 



Study. 



Grade. Instructor. 



A. General Suiocary 



ACHaCVXMENT 


EnoRT 








Attituuje 


Included in thd kxfort 








No. Lessons 


Interviews 




Absence 


Made up 



B. Daily Work in Explanation of Above 



Class Wosk 


WSITTEN Wosx 


PrqMuation 


Attention 






Fom 













Habtcs 


IlIFBOVEIfENT 


Study 


Attack 


Correction 


Shown in Daily Work 


Shown in Tests 













Figure n 



Individual Differences 6i 

no question, however, as to the wisdom of enlarging school 
reports, and this elaborate example may serve to stimulate the 
adoption of similar plans elsewhere. 

General Summary 

The foregoing discussion has stressed the importance of 
dealing with individuals from the standpoints of their native 
capacities in responding to class duties, in dealing with par- 
ticular subjects, or in regard to sex differences ; their image 
types, i,e. their peculiar type of mental reaction, dominantly 
visual, auditory, or motor ; and their dispositional attitudes. 
Individuals are not to be dealt with to the neglect of group 
cooperation, but the latter becomes more harmonious and effi- 
cient if the teacher understands what mode of procedure is 
most successful in bringing each individual to the maximum 
development. It has been suggested throughout the chapter 
that these various individual traits should be considered in 
judging the pupil's progress or the kind of method best adapted 
to his finest development. 




CHAPTER IV 

PROPER CONDITIONS OF AND HINDRANCES TO 

STUDYING 

I. The Significance of Favorable Conditions 

One frequently reads of the hardships endured by famous 
characters during their preparatory days, of how they studied 
and worked under conditions of squalor, ill health, and mental 
disturbances bordering on insanity. Reference to such con- 
ditions is made as a sort of stimulus to overcome various kinds 
of limitations and in the process of overcoming the acquiring 
of qualities of greatness and worthy responsibility. Doubtless 
such a message has an important place in education. The 
significance of heroic examples should never be minimized. 
Galileo, Schiller, Franklin, Wordsworth, Edison, immortalize 
faith, industry, and grit. Without these elements of power 
intellect is Uke an imhamessed force of nature, running ever 
to waste. 

It will not be denied, however, that significant as hardship 
and experience must be, they are also tremendously expensive. 
Probably friction can never be wholly removed. One of the 
alluring problems of physics, as we all know, is just this mini- 
mizing of friction. Hardships, the stimulus of difficulty, the 
incentive of mastery, are invaluable ; but in the life of the 
pupil who earnestly strikes for great achievement they will 

62 



Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to Studying 63 

become more meaningful and more glorious under conditions 
that give them, so to speak, a more favorable and strategic 
battle groimd. In other words, under whatever conditions the 
pupil studies, his task must be considerably dif&cult. Learn- 
ing is not easy. It implies, it demands perseverance, ingenu- 
ity, grit. This is true even under the sanest program of the 
doctrine of interest. But the purpose of this chapter is to 
stress the importance of surroimding effort and good-will with 
conditions most favorable for their exercise. Effort for its 
own sake is a doubtful doctrine anywhere, even in physical 
training, but effort imder certain advantageous conditions 
reduces friction and waste, and conserves energy, time, and 

hope. 

n. Conditions or Studying Classified 

For convenience of discussion and application the essential 
conditions of studying may be grouped as follows : physiologi- 
cal, including the large topic of health with its requisites of 
nourishment, sleep, and exercise ; physical^ embracing some of 
the fimdamentals of school hygiene, and certain items relating 
to the pupil's study room at home ; psychological j involving 
amoimt of time for studying, mental tone, moods, etc. Stu- 
dents of the science of education will recognize the foregoing 
topics. They are introduced here because they are as inti- 
mately related to the student's life as they are to class manage- 
ment or to the teaching process in general. It is fundamental 
in successful teaching that everything pertaining to school 
life duster aroimd the student. All school work should be 
viewed from the place of the one taught. The foregoing 
classification therefore aims to focus attention primarily on 
those conditions that are intimately related to the study life 
of yoimg people in high school. 



64 Supervised Study 

I. Physiological Conditions, including Health. The old 
adage, " a sound mind in a sound body," like many other wise 
sayings, has been challenged by notable exceptions. Pope, 
Coleridge, Carlyle, Milton, Poe — to mention only a very few 
— were far from soimd in body, and yet their literary produc- 
tions rank among the world's treasures. Ill health sometimes 
becomes a powerful driving force, urging the mind to masterful 
victories. There can be no gainsaying the fact that ill health 
and physical deformity are not always visible impediments of 
success. Marshall P. Wilder, in spite of his dwarf-like figure 
and crippled form, scattered simshine into lonely huts and 
austere palaces of kings. Steinmetz, another dwarf, and 
seriously handicapped physically, rivals Edison in the electri- 
cal domain. But it is unsafe to generalize from a few and al- 
together unusual exceptions. In the very nature of things, 
health is essential to the best effort, for health simply means 
the largest amoimt and finest quality of work of which the 
individual is capable. 

a. What Health Means. Without attempting or referring 
to a technical definition, it is important that students and 
teachers should know that essentially health means a well- 
balanced organism. The process known as metabolism con- 
sists of two main fimctions : one, called anabolism, builds up 
the body by feeding, sleep, and recreation ; the other, termed 
katabolism, tears down the organism by work, disease, or the 
lack of those agencies that restore it. The nervous system 
receives its strength and resiliency from the well-balanced 
body. Good blood circulation ai;d normal digestion with its 
allied fimctions mean vitality, the source of effort. The 
building up or anabolic process serves to stimulate the nervous 
system to resume alert charge of the organism. Overstimu- 



Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to Studying 6$ 

lus of the nervous system causes it to work too hard, i.e., to 
produce more in a shorter amoimt or equal amoimt of time 
than normally it should be required to do. Hence, the over- 
stimulated nerves use up energy faster than the strength of the 
abnormal stimulus can supply it. The result is that exhaus- 
tion sets in earlier and more completely. 

The ultimate effect of stimulants consists in the nervous 
system requiring this imusually strong means of excitement. 
The using up of energy by the nervous system gradually 
implies that the stimulus or the stimulant must become corre- 
spondingly stronger. Normal stimuli, such as food, sleep, 
and recreation, imder these conditions have long since become 
inadequate, because less intense and rapid in their effects. 
Ultimately the organism craves the once unusual and now the 
only effective sting to work. The use of tobacco among high 
school boys cannot be too strongly denoimced. Nicotine, 
like every stimulant, is also a narcotic. It stimulates only to 
depress a little later on. There are investigations a-plenty 
to show that tobacco users, especially in high school, are about 
15 per cent less efficient than others. Cigarettes are much 
more harmful than cigars or pipe, but all forms of tobacco for 
growing boys (need we add girls?) are injurious to physical 
growth, reliability, endurance, and alertness. Similar prohi- 
bition must be placed on the use of coffee, tea, and certain 
drinks at the soda fountain. The growing boy and girl must 
give eager nature a right of way toward sturdy forms and con- 
trol of the nervous system. It is important, therefore, that 
students attend to the normal means of exciting physical and 
mental effort. These are : 

(i) Food, Among the several " new movements " in 
modem education none is more significant than the Domestic 




66 Supervised Study 

Science curriculum. Food is now studied in its chemical rela- 
tions in a way similar to the analysis of soil fertilizers, for 
example. Certain foods contain certain chemicals. The 
body needs this or that kind of food for producing fats and 
tissues. Food chemistry enables the well informed to select 
those foods that serve in the capacities required. By means of 
food nervous and muscular energy are supplied. There is, how- 
ever, no special food for either muscle or brain development. 
Here, as in other fields, superstition has wrought much harm ; 
fish, for example, being called a brain food. Eating is impor- 
tant from two standpoints : quality of food and time of eating, 
(a) Quality and Amount of Pood. Foods are divided iato 
proteins or tissue-building and carbohydrates and fats or the 
energy-producing kinds. Proteins or tissue builders are found 
chiefly in the animal kingdom and include meat, eggs, cheese, 
milk, dried peas, beans, and lentils, some of the grains as rolled 
oats (on which the Scotch are said to have developed brain and 
brawn), and finally nuts. The latter produce also heat and 
energy, but are rather expensive. The heat and energy pro- 
ducers embrace sugar, the fats and oils, bread, cereals, vege- 
tables, and fruits. A well-balanced dietary should include all 
of these. There is no general agreement concerning the pro- 
portion needed. Vost and Atwater favor the first groups — 
the proteins or tissue builders; more recent physiological 
thought, led by Chittenden,^ advocates a smaller per cent of 
tissue builders. In plain language this means less meat. It 
is commonly agreed that meat once a day is suflSicient for stu- 
dents and people generally. Many sustain robust health with- 

^ See Chittenden, NutrUion of Man and Physiological Economy in Nutrition; 
Hutchison, NutrUion and Dietetics; Sherman, Chemistry of Food and Nutrition; 
Thompson, Practical Dietetics, 



Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to Stiidying 67 

out any meat at all, but to do so requires some knowledge 
of food values in order to obtain a balanced ration. It is 
doubtful, however, if pure vegetarianism should be insisted 
upon for high school pupils. 

Well-cooked cereals are excellent food for adolescents. It 
has been foimd by students of the subject that fresh fruits 
and vegetables are necessary to supply organic acids, mineral 
matter, and bulk, essential to normal peristalsis and also to a 
certain amoimt of energy. Recent investigation has shown 
that the organism needs an abundance of mineral matter, 
especially the phosphates, calcium, and iron as foimd in fruits 
and vegetables and also in the milk and egg foods. 

Dearborn, in " The Sthenic Index of Education," ^ discusses 
at length the chemical composition of nerve nutriments. He 
writes: 

"Many things of late have combined to suggest that the proper 
nutrition of the nerve cells of the central neural axis depends espe- 
cially on the phosphatids. These are complicated substances be- 
longing to the dass of lipoids and consist of carbon, hydrogen, 
oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus. These are fat-like compounds 
but more complex than the fats. They are phospharized and ni- 
trogenized fats, and, therefore, are highly unstable substances with 
abundant calory value for their own essential purposes. Perhaps 
herein lies the solution of hiunor of moderately fat people — worry 
is allied to discouragement. Worry uses up nerve energy at the 
maximum rate and rapidly consiunes the general body fat whether 
it does the lipoids and the chromatin of the brain cells or not." 

Dearborn says further that efficiency depends upon brain 
and muscle nutrition, internal secretion, muscular adroitness, 
the heartrate, the blood pressure, the hiunidity and sunlight. 

^Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. XIX, pp. 166-185, 191 2. 



68 Supervised Sttidy 

Euphoric conditions produce a certain balance, consisting of 
harmonious interplay between the central nervous system 
(brains and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system. 
Euphoria or well being is defined also as a delicate " balance 
action of opposed functional groups of muscles with kinaesthetic 
sensations as its essential consciousness." Skill depends on this 
balance of energy, as Book points out. MacDougall states : 

"The conception toward which the study of the organism as 
a whole points is that the neurones of the afferent side of the nerv- 
ous system (including the cerebellum) constitute a great com- 
mon reservoir of free energy, in which the head of pressure 
varies from moment to moment with the ratio of inflow to the out- 
flow and on which all afferent paths may draw in turn when they 
come into activity. This reservoir of free energy is the tension, 
neural and muscular, represented in the effort of exact volimtary 
control inherently kinaesthetic and inhibitory." 

When one considers the far-reaching importance of the 
science of eating in its relations to efficiency in studying, it is 
surprising that so Uttle attention was given until recently 
to this phase of school life. One ventures the suggestion that 
in the organization of the program of studies in the high school 
one of the new requirements should be this very subject of 
health with emphasis on the science of nourishment. 

The amount of food is another vital question. As a rule, 
adolescents are hearty eaters. The physical growth of the 
body and the incessant activity of the individual demand a 
Uberal supply of nourishment. The high school pupil needs 
only too frequently more than can be contained in the lunch- 
box. School cafeteria supplement the home supply, but poor 
pupils who cannot afford even the small price of these school 
limcheons are at a serious disadvantage. Complete satisfac- 



Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to Studying 69 

tion in eating, however, should not be aimed at. Fletcher 
has suggested that one should leave a meal feeling able to eat 
more. Eating to the point of full satisfaction, as, for example, 
at a large Thanksgiving or Christmas dinner, produces slug- 
gishness and drowsiness, both of which are hindrances to 
studying. An interesting collection of individual peculiari- 
ties in this matter of the amount of eating has been made. 

Mohammed needed only a handful of dates and a mouthful of 
water after a day of hard riding. Pope Pius IX required only an 
egg and a piece of bread for breakfast. Michael Angelo most of 
his life subsisted on the plain food of an Italian peasant. Leonardo 
da Vinci was satisl&ed with bread and oranges. Francis Bacon 
never ate more than one or two simple dishes at a meal. Locke 
believed that students should eat a piece of fish for breakfast, while 
Raphael lived principally on figs and raisins and other dried fruits 
with bread. Extremes of a wholly different t)^e, however, were 
Peter the Great who enjoyed baked goose stuffed with apples; 
Fielding whose "heaven's own food" consisted of tarts with currant 
jelly; Ben Jons5n who doted on pork pie with an abundance of 
Canary wine ; Macaulay who thought that plain roast beef and 
potatoes were fit for any man. Henry VIII with consistent pro- 
clivity for exaggerations in life ate himself drowsy on a haunch 
of venison. Walter Scott preferred venison and potatoes to any 
other dishes. Frederick the Great was German enough to prefer 
cabbage with salt beef and pork. 

School feeding is now so common in large high schools that 
it promises to become imiversally an integral part of the sec- 
ondary school system. The menus at the school limcheons 
are, of course, not intended to serve as completely satisfying 
meals, but to the layman it is quite astonishing how effective 
these luncheons have proved to be. The following Three-cent 
Meal is t3rpical. 




70 



Supervised Study 



Table DC. — Typical Theee-cent Meals 



Meal No. 



3 

4 

5 
6 



Contents of Meal 



Cocoa, apple butter, 2 dates, sandwich, i graham 
wafer 

Rice pudding with raisins, bread, i pretzel, 
4 stewed prunes 

Bean soup, bread, i milk lunch, 2 stewed peaches . 

Clam chowder, bread, i graham wafer, i banana . 

Baked beans, bread, i pretzel, 5 stewed prunes . 

Macaroni with tomato sauce or macaroni with 
hamburg steak and brown bread, milk lunch, 
gravy, small orange 



Food Value m 
Calories 



439 

400 

48s 
400 

42s 



410 



These luncheons are interesting because of their selection, 
their food values, their variety, their quantity, and the re- 
markably low price of three cents. Practically all children 
economically able to attend a school can buy such limches.^ 

(b) Time of Eating. A few years ago an experiment on 
indigent children in Boston was carried on by feeding them at 
noontime and morning on proper nutrients. In a short while 
they showed marked improvement. It was the supplying of 
proper food at the proper time that wrought the change. 
Fletcher and others have advocated eating whenever the or- 
ganism craved food. Stated hours of eating, it is claimed, are 
arbitrary and may prove harmful. It would be impossible, 
however, to carry out such a r6gime in high school. In some 
schools the limcheon hour is not the same for all classes, but 
approximately all classes lunch between twelve and one. The 
social value of such group limching should not be minimized. 
Often the meal itself stimulates a sluggish appetite, and the 
individual finds that the feeling of " no appetite '' vanishes 

* W. S. Cornell, Medical Inspection j 19 12, p. 100. 



PnpBr OmSHims n^ ami Smiramcfs tt Simiymg jt 

before tffmptTTg ^^les. Sx^nho* ineak li&x'e the Jidded xmtw 
of bmg Test penods, pgnsK in tiie day^siwgk. Agsoxi, iSie$r 
serve 1z) icgxQBtc de piDgnan ni tiie dsp, ^$^dz]£ it a ^^mdn 
srpstcmBlic pnK»dxiTe,in itsdi iziQ)^^ 

RcgxilBiity cf esl3x^ involves also sa^fidemt iimejnr «o^tf|f. 
Hie xveaigt CameD student, it 'w&s iomid, do^ee yeios 4^50, 
devoted 1 up lumisji dfiv to meak; Pi^dent Snxrman^s tks 
annDendaitian hang two Iioqis a day, A laige nxmil^esr of stn- 
dents ^lent Iks daii ail }iam- aiid a luQi a. day at T^nla^ 
Doobtl^ Wgh Bdiool pcQnls do not ^>end as mxidi tim^ as 
this Wrfh tiie act2Til2e&, sodal and inteDectnal, acannxtlat- 
ing at this time, eatrng is a Immed iiecessaiy iormaBty > si^ 
plffmfnted hy a Trndnight limrh. a ciiafing-^B^ pam\ or a, 
famdi^xjinnter vigil. Digesdon and noozishiiient mxtst saSer 
under s&di canftions and in tmn canse seiioas indBfierence 
toward sdiool woik. 

(2) Sletp, An inteiesdzig and staitEng opinion on sleep was 
given by Mr. ££san some time ago ^ in the following words : 

''In the old dajs laaa went vp and down with the son, A 
mlDion years from now he won\ go to bed at alL ReaDy , skqp is 
an absar(£ty, a bad hibit. Hnmanity can adjust itsdi to almost 
any cntromstanocs. Not so very \osig ago we had a good deal ol 
tioobk here in the factory while we were trying to perfect the disk 
record for OUT phonographs, and it was plain enoo^ to me that one 
leasonforit was that oar work was too mixhinteiTc^ytedby the daily 
routine of our lives. We had made np our minds that the txoubk 
had to end, and that it would really not get something approach- 
ing midivided attention until it did end. £^t of us th«ti started 
upon the woik with very definite intuitions of wasting just as little 
time as posable. For £ve we^s we put in from 145 to 150 hours 



^ Nem Tori Times^ Sunday, October 11, 19x4, Section 4. 



• 



72 



Supervised Study 



a week each at the job. One hundred and fifty hours a week 
means more than twenty-one hours a day . . . we all gamed weight. 
. . . The average man who sleeps seven or eight or nine hours 
daily is continually oppressed by lassitude. If he sleeps only four 
or five hours daily, he feels as clear as a bell and full of energy when 
he wakes up, and when he goes to bed he is sufficiently tired so that 
he will certainly sleep well, but it takes a month or two to acquire 
the habit." 

Edison, former President Harper of the University of 
Chicago, and Napoleon are famous among short-hour sleepers. 
Napoleon foimd that two or three hours' sleep suflSced. These 
are adults, however, and ambitious Edisons and Harpers in 
high school must bear this in mind. Furthermore, it is a 
matter of history that after Napoleon had adopted the brief 
schedule of sleep, he divorced Josephine, invaded Russia with 
the tragic return from Moscow as a result, and at last met de- 
feat on Waterloo. He had lost his control, his shrewd judg- 
ment, his power of endurance. Dr. Duke ^ offers the following 
schedule of sleep for adolescents : 

Table X. — Schedule op Sleep 



Age 


Hours of Sleep 


12-14 


lOi 


14-16 


10 


16-18 


9i 


18-19 


9 


19-21 


8J 


21-23 


8 



Some have said that of all rooms the bedchamber is most 
important and usually the worst planned. Sleeping quarters 

* Teachers' Encyclopadia, Vol. IV. 



Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to Studying 73 

should be commodious, with high ceilings and wide windows, 
which should be open from the top at least a foot. If sleeping 
porches are available, they should be used, providing there is 
ample bedding. 

Bright, dainty, plamly furnished bedchambers with cheer- 
ful pictures and small rugs — not carpets — are the most 
desirable. In homes where these conveniences are prohibitive, 
the rooms should be at least well ventilated all day long. This 
is possible in almost every home. Sleeping hoods are now 
available for those who can afford them. In country districts 
the instinctive desire of boys to sleep in tents should be re- 
spected imder proper vigilance. Too much time cannot be 
spent out of doors, and the habit of sleeping either out of doors 
or what amounts to the same thing, on sleeping porches, should 
be strongly recommended. 

(3) Recreation. Good studying depends also on a soimd 
body developed by wholesome exercise. This does not mean 
violent or frequent recreation, as only too often characterizes 
athletics. It does mean daily and moderate enjoyment of life 
in the open by long walks, various kinds of games, like tennis, 
track, golf, lacrosse, baseball, and football. The amount of 
time and money spent on gymnasiums has doubtless been 
exaggerated. Basket ball outdoors is better than indoor 
playing. Artificial means of exercising, while important imder 
certain conditions, should be regarded as makeshifts. Out- 
door life, with its many forms of activity, its diversions of 
hunting, horseback riding, swimming, motoring, canoeing, 
rowing, sailing, yachting, and skating, is far superior to dumb- 
bells and crossbars. In cities where coimtry-life advantages 
are diflFicult to procure, the gymnasiimi is the best substitute. 
The pool provides aquatic pastimes, less spectacular, and ex- 



/ 



74 



Supervised Study 



hilarating than the surf, but interesting, and as a recreation 
very effective. 

Physical directors need to be men of wise discrinunation. 
In many universities they are physicians — one feels that 
everywhere this important office should be filled by a physician. 
The danger of overexercising, overexertion even in normally 
harmless forms of " gym " work, makes urgent the demand 
that each and every high school pupil imdergo a thorough 
physical examination before being permitted to engage in any 
recreational exercise. The school health inspection crusade 
has already won wide territory. It deserves imiversal indorse- 
ment and adoption. 

Mr. N. C. Johnson in an investigation of how high school 
pupils study ^ gives the following table which has interest in 
this connection. The top numerals refer to high school classes. 

Table XI. — Game or Recreation Tending to put One in Good 

Condition for Study 



Walking . 
Bicycling 
Driving . 
Baseball . 
Music . . 
Tennis . 
Gymnastics 
Running . 
Work . . 



59 

37 
i6 

12 

5 
5 
4 
5 
4 



II 
9 

2 

5 

I 

I 

2 

4 
o 



17 

19 

4 

3 

4 

2 

4 
o 

I 



II 
6 

4 

I 

5 

2 
O 
O 

I 



Total 



98 

71 
26 

21 

IS 
10 

10 

9 
6 



It is a serious mistake to seek mental recreation by hard 
physical exercise. Too much physical exercise is exhausting 
and imfits one for serious concentrated study. 

* School Review J Vol. Vn, No. 5, May, 1899, p. 268. 



k 



Proper Conditions of and Bindrances to Studying 75 

2. Physical Conditions. The reader will bear in mind that 
the thesis of this book maintains that supervision of study 
implies the supervision of the whole individual and his en- 
vironment. Study is most effective, it is maintained, imder 
conditions that further the best intellectual effort. For this 
reason it is necessary to consider some of the more fundamental 
phases of school hygiene as related more particularly to the 
physical conditions of the pupil's environment. The con- 
ditions of light, heat, and ventilation must be here viewed in 
their relation to studying. 

a. Light. A few simple rules based on careful investiga- 
tions direct that in the daytime the pupil's desk, in school or 
at home, should be placed so that the light falls over his left 
shoulder. This simple rule is widely disregarded at home. 
Its importance is obvious, for, inasmuch as the majority of 
people are right-handed, Hght from the left strikes the hand in 
writing or the book in reading without any shadow falling on 
the paper or the book. Furthermore, the light does not enter 
the eye directly as it does when the. desk faces the window. 
Modem school buildings provide for this hygienic condition 
of lighting by windows on the left of every classroom, no win- 
dows in the front of the room, and rarely any in the back of the 
room. This accounts for the large bare waUs in the architec- 
ture of new school buildings. 

It is important that shnilar rules be observed with artificial 
light. At night, however, it is often impossible to arrange 
the lighting facilities so conveniently. The gas jets are too 
high, the electric bulbs are not handy. The best substitute 
under such conditions is either to place the table or desk near 
the source of illimMnation so that the light comes from the left, 
or to wear a green eye shade. By the latter means the rays of 



76 Supervised Study 

light are prevented from striking the eyes directly. It should 
be noted also that when lying down to read the light should 
be back of one's head, and to the left, never directly in front 
of the eyes with the book serving as a shield. 

The quality of light is equally important. Flickering gas 
jets and yellowish electric light are plainly to be avoided. 
Some students of maturer age find that the old-style easily 
portable student lamp with green shade is still unexcelled. Its 
light is white and steady. It can be adjusted to suit various 
kinds of t3rpe or paper. It can be placed at convenient range. 
The same results, of course, are possible with the electric read- 
ing lamp, providing its shade is not too large or too high. 

Personal preference will determine whether or not the study- 
room at home should be brilliant with illumination or subdued 
with only a soft light near the one at work. Whatever may be 
one's preference in this matter, it is important to avoid dazzling 
light either by day or night. Too much sunshine in the school- 
room or at home is injurious to the eyesight. Light green or 
yellow shades are commonly used to modify too strong light. 
At night the illumination should be soft, even if the whole 
room is flooded with Ught. Indirect Kghting is being found 
most serviceable in this connection. The remarkable results 
of indirect lighting at the Panama Exposition indicate the 
possibilities with this kind of illumination. 

Subdued lighting in the schoolroom is made possible by walls 
tinted in Kght green or Ught buff with ceiKngs in cream color. 
The once and not altogether abandoned practice of painting 
schoolroom interiors in chocolate or olive hues cannot be too 
strongly condemned. Such colors may not show finger marks 
and spots, but neither do they stimulate the pupils to have 
pride in their room and consequently to keep it neat and clean. 



^ 



Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to Studying 77 

The forgoing piovisioiis, howev^, must not divert attaiticm 
from the most important requirement, namely, st^itni light. 
One of the finest hi^ school buildings in this country lad^s this 
important feature. Its observance of the hygiene of lighting 
is correct in other req)ects; but the rows of seats farthest 
removed from the windows are insufficiently illumined, even 
on the bri^test days. 

The princq>les of sdiool h^^giene r^uladng the atnomnt of 
light may bri^y be stated as follows : 



The window area ot the schoolroom should be at least one sixth 
of the floor area ; cm the lower floors one fourth ol the floor area. 
Hiere should be no windows in front. If used at all cm the back 
wall of the room, they should be about d^t feet from the floor and 
serve principally as means ci ventilation. As already stated, the 
main source €t lig^t should come from the left. On the rig^t wall, 
when necessary, there may be sl^^lementary windows with less 
lighting capacity than that of the windows on the left. Top €r 
sky Ug^ts should be avmded. Hiey throw shadows, are likdy to 
be obscured by snow in winter ; and in summer they cause the sun 
rays to beat down on the pupils. Furthermore, they are hard to 
ke^ clean. Windows should reach as close to the ceiling as possi- 
ble, at least to within six inches. The tap of the ^ass surface 
should be twelve feet above the floor, thus allowing d^t feet for 
the length of each window. Hie bottom of the window should be 
at least four feet from the floor in high school buildings, the sill 
being on a level with the eyes of the pupils seated at thdr desks. 

The windows should be placed as far to the rear of the room as 
possible. Hie mullions between windows should be as narrow as 
safety of constructicHi permits. Metal mullions about ten inches 
wide guard safety in the small building, but wider dimensions will 
be necessary in larger buildings. The windows, if constructed in 
banks or groiqis, should be sqiarated by piers ranging from a foot 



78 Supervised Study 

to three or four feet according to the size of the structure. By 
making the outer portion of the muUions and piers wedge-shaped 
— reaching ahnost a sharp edge — sufficient light will be admitted 
whatever the width of mullion and pier. School boards will find 
that the expense of such mulUons is almost the same as for brick 
piers.^ Steel crossbeams may be used. Some architects use the 
arch lintel, but others beUeve such practice is inadvisable. The 
general outlines of windows should be plain rectangles. Large 
window glass is substituted by small ribbed glass in some schools. 
The latter style tends to break briUiant sunshine and give the need- 
ful softness of illumination. 

It has been found that nine 36-candle power, 40-watt Tungsten 
lamps, each equipped with the diffusing prismatic glass coated on 
outer or inner surface with a white enamel is the best light. By 
arranging these Tungstens in three rows, parallel to the desks and 
placing each lamp ten feet six inches above the floor so that the 
center of Ught distribution falls sUghtly to the left of the middle 
of the room when facing the teacher's desk one obtains 2.5 candle 
feet at every desk.^ Acetylene and also gasoline Ughting have 
been found very satisfactory for country and village schools. They 
give a bright, white Hght, and are cheap. 

Blackboards shut out a great amount of light. For this reason 
it will be found beneficial to cover the blackboards when not in use 
with roller or drawn white curtains. 

The school building should not be handicapped by the dose 
proximity of tall trees or high buildings. These tend to shut out 
a considerable amount of Ught. 

As a general requirement it may be said by way of summary 
that there should be hght sufficient for the pupil to read 20 Type 
at 20 feet in any part of the room and diamond (briUiant) at 12 
inches minimum distance, the book lying on the desk as it should 

* Warren R. Briggs, Modem American School Buildings. 

' B. B. Hatch, electxical engineer for the School House Commission of Boston. 



k 



Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to Studying 79 

be used by the pupil. Cloudy, muggy days, and late afternoon 
hours require, of course, more light; and this should be provided 
for as suggested in the foregoing paragraphs. 

b. Heat. Probably in most schools and with most individ- 
uals there is more likelihood of the room being too warm than 
comfortable or too cold. Rooms that are too warm produce 
drowsiness and sluggishness. In coimtry schools, however, 
where heating is provided usually by means of stoves, the dis- 
tribution of heat throughout the room is unequal, pupils near 
the stove getting too much and those farthest away too little 
heat. For good studying 65^-68° Fahrenheit is ample. In 
England and Scotland the regulation calls for 65°. The exact 
amoimt of heat depends on the structure of the walls and 
floors, the pUpirs clothing, age of pupils, kind of food eaten, 
and somewhat on geographical location. Yoimg people in 
extreme northern climates are more accustomed to cold, are 
hardened, so to speak, to the climate, and probably would 
find comfort in a room that to others might seem imbearable. 
Persons with sluggish blood circulation require for comfort's 
sake more heat than the very robust. 

(i) Kinds of Heating, Considerable advance has been made 
in the improvement upon the old fireplace, and the "base-burner." 
Both of these means of heating, however, are still useful, and might 
well serve to supplement heat from other sources, whenever needed. 
The stove is still used in most country schools, but as a sole means 
of heating is injurious for reasons already named. But surrounded 
by a "jacket" its distribution of heat will be more uniform. The 
hot-air furnace resembles the jacketed stove, but is placed in the 
basement. It provides for proper ventilation in cold weather ; is 
more easily managed than steam or hot-water heat; is better 
adapted to milder climate; provides needful moisture at reason- 



8o Supervised Study 

able expense ; and all together is cheaper than any other kind of 
central heating. But it has certain disadvantages, as, for example, 
the danger of gases from the combustion box getting into the ducts 
that lead to the rooms ; fluctuates in amount of heat and unless 
carefully watched fails to supply sufficient heat especially to 
rooms on the cold side of the building. Steam heat is becoming more 
popular. Its supply of heat is comparatively steady. The amount 
of heat can be regulated for even distribution throughout the build- 
ing. Its chief advantage Ues, however, in the possibility of keeping 
the boiler-room in a disconnected annex reached by a steel and 
asbestos door, and thereby reducing danger from fire to a minimum. 
Experts, however, are required to manage it. Pounding in the 
pipes is not an infrequent disturbance ; breakage is frequent and 
costly. Hot-water heating, while resembling steam heat, is better 
suited to a mild climate, and costs less to maintain, although the 
cost of installing is greater than that of the other systems. For 
school purposes, however, it is hardly to be recommended. Too 
much time is required to heat the whole building. There is danger 
of the water freezing in the pipes unless the janitor maintains a 
low fire when the building is not used. 

c. Ventilation, Closely related to the matter of heating is 
proper ventilation. In many homes and schools the air is 
heavy and unfit for study purposes. Attention should be 
called to a recent investigation which seems to prove that air 
is impure not because imchanged but because it lacks circula- 
tion. If currents of air could be kept moving, this investiga- 
tion shows that the same air might be used over and over again 
with no serious results. If, for example, large electric fans 
maintained a constant circulation of air, it would matter very 
little whether or not the windows were open or change of air 
came from other sources for a considerable time. The air 
currents in the room would by themselves keep the occupants 



Proper Conditions of and \ Hindrances to Studying 8i 

of the room comfortable and energetic. However this may be, 
poor ventilation causes headache, lassitude, faintness, sleepi- 
ness, dizziness, and general nervousness. 

Good ventilation involves air currents, temperature, and 
himudity. The last named must not be overlooked. Too 
little moisture in the air of the schoolroom causes dry nasal 
passages and membranes, conditions that render the pupil 
liable to infection outdoors. The amoimt of humidity de- 
pends upon the locality and the temperature. Large ven- 
tilating systems provide needful humidity by forcing the in- 
coming air through sheets of water, thereby also washing and 
cooling it. Where stoves are used, a receptacle of water on 
the stove will provide moisture. 

(i) Methods of Ventilation, The usual method has many 
advantages. Windows open at top and at the bottom allow the 
impure air to escape and the fresh supply to enter. It is better, 
however, to open the windows wide at stated intervals and then 
close them rather than to keep them open constantly. This 
method of course is cheap. There is no skill needed in keeping it 
adjusted. The Plenum System accomplishes the same results by 
a much more intricate process. Air is supplied through the base- 
ment, forced into air ducts by huge fans, these ducts opening into 
all the rooms. On the inner wall a second opening allows the 
"impure air" to escape. With this system it is unnecessary to 
open the windows at all. Unless, however, all parts of the 
system are in order, the results are unsatisfactory. It probably 
is the best system of internal ventilation, although still lacking 
perfection. 

The Gravity System is most serviceable in small schools where 
more elaborate systems are prohibited on account of the expense. 
The common jacketed stove, already referred to, and the hot-air 
furnace are the prevailing forms of this type of ventilation. 

G 



82 Supervised Study 

d. Appearance of Pupil's Study Hall at Home and at School. 
Pupils in high school and students at college are peculiarly fond 
of denlike rooms elaborately furnished with trophies, pictures, 
pennants, pillows, books, furniture, etc. Aside from the 
lack of artistic simplicity in such oriental and imitative luxu- 
rious surroundings there is a distinct loss of the suggestion 
of study. The appearance of the room suggests a thousand and 
one distracting reminiscences rather opposed to concentration 
and prolonged willingness to work. Without in any sense 
being ugly the pupil's study room should be plainly furnished. 
Loimge, rocking chairs, pillows, are so many temptations to 
relaxation. 

System, however, should characterize the arrangement of 
books, papers, pencils, references. Much time is lost in not 
being able to find things. If the pupil is compelled to gather 
up his references when not yet through with them, there is 
loss of time is sorting them again and finding the place where 
to begin. For this reason the pupil's room should be so private 
that he can leave things as they are and continue the next time 
with the least amoimt of confusion in starting. This habit of 
knowing where to find things is important not only in studying 
but in every phase of economical living. If the pupil owns 
a desk, he should determine upon a convenient scheme of plac- 
ing his study paraphernalia in the various drawers. Certain 
books should occupy defined places on the shelves — not by 
color or size but as nearly as possible by subjects. 

The orderly arrangement of the room (not necessarily " spick 
and span ") suggests work rather than idleness and day dream- 
ing. The business air of the pupils' workshop indicates 
that study is, for the time being at least, an earnest vocatioiii 
not a lightsome occupation or a dull drudgery. 



Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to Sttidying 83 

In the school there is little likelihood that the study hall will 
appear overfurnished, but there is danger of distraction from 
much writing on the blackboard, or elaborate stage settings, 
as the writer saw in one high school where the stage held a 
confused collection of athletic trophies, biological and botani- 
cal specimens, manual training exhibits, and domestic science 
mysteries. 

3. Psychological Conditions. The reference to a simple, 
orderly arrangment of the study room leads to a more detailed 
discussion of attention and posture, mental tone, and emotional 
states which may aid or hinder studying. 

a. Attention. The question is often asked — How can I 
learn to concentrate? Many attempts have been made to 
answer, but in all too many cases the replies amoimt to little 
more than an imperative — pay attention But that is the 
rub — what is the price required? Some individuals possess 
a peculiar power of concentration ; others, try as they may, 
fail to hold themselves to the task for any long period. The 
following suggestions have proved helpful : 

(i) Posture. Avoid a reclining or swinging posture. The 
attitude of attention is alert — the sentinel must not sit down 
or doze on duty; he should keep moving. The chauffeiu: 
and locomotive engineer look straight ahead — in a position 
tense, alert, ready for action. The pupil in a straight-back 
chair in front of his table or clock with light well directed is 
seated at attention. 

(2) A Quick Start. William James has written about the 
agony of starting — an experience known probably to all 
writers. In school children fidget, drop books and pencils, 
rearrange papers, etc., several minutes before getting down to 
work. If they do so at school, they surely do the same 




84 Supervised Study 

at home. There might well be some drill in the quick start 
— the speedy elimination or avoidance of preliminaries. 

(3) Time Limit. One of the best aids to concentration is 
being compelled to work under a certain amoimt of pressure, — 
so many problems in fifteen minutes, — so many pages in ten 
minutes. Under the divided period scheme of supervised 
study with little or no home study, the pupil knows that most 
of his studying will be limited to the class period. If the 
assignment is reasonable, he wiU be able to concentrate during 
school hours (with the additional vacant period for study) on 
practically all of his lessons. 

(4) Interest in the Subject. This goes without saying. Few 
boys grow tired of playing baseball or hunting. They con- 
centrate on what they like. It is the teacher's task (how 
often this has been said!), therefore, to arouse interest by 
enthusiasm, good cheer, kindliness, cooperation, super- 
vision of studying. Enthusiasm is just as contagious as 
indifference. 

(s) Rapid Reading. Mind wandering while reading a book 
is a frequent hindrance to studying. It is necessary to take 
oneself well in hand, and increase the rate of reading for several 
lines, then to go back over the same lines until the attention 
is normal. The increase of rate demands more attention — 
one is conscious of being at work, and this very fact of added 
strain or effort checks the dilatory day dreaming or loose 
associations. 

(6) Variety of Appeal. Under the most ideal conditions 
monotony is inevitable unless the pupil attack his lesson from 
more than one angle. After studying history, for example, 
in one textbook it would be an advantage to read some novel 
dealing with the period or some other author whose point of 



Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to Sttidying 85 

view is fresher and whose literary style is attractive. Monot- 
ony is caused by discouragement, overconfidence leading to 
laxity of effort to advance beyond one's present attainment, 
and also by the daily routine of method in teaching and study- 
ing. The kind of stimulus must change or the amoimt of it 
must increase, but the best incentive is that produced by suc- 
cess itself. The pupil should aim, then, to develop more skill, 
more knowledge in his subject in order to sustain and increase 
attention upon its various phases. The variety of appeal 
will increase knowledge and enlarge one's conception of the 
subject and by this very fact strengthen attention. 

b. Feeling Tone. Another important consideration in ef- 
fective studying is the pupil's emotional condition. How we 
feel has more to do with success than is generally recognized 
even by pupils themselves. Pleasant and impleasant feeling 
tone, it was seen in the first part of this chapter, depends upon 
health conditions ; but other factors enter into these states 
of feeling, factors common enough in every one's life but hardly 
respected as yet in formal school work. Several points must 
be noted. 

(i) Success produces a. pleasant feeling. The knowledge 
that one can do a task at first very diflSicult is a powerful push 
to advance to higher forms of achievement. Repeated failures 
result in discouragement, weakness of will, and eventually in 
loss of ability to attempt big things. The pupil needs the ap- 
proval of teachers ; but, more than this, he must have his own 
approval growing out of well-applied effort at last victorious. 
Praise that is undeserved works harm, not only morally, but 
psychologically. It tempts the pupil to get rewards without 
having earned them. The daily awareness of forging ahead 
is a continual stimulus to advance. 



86 Supervised SPudy 

(2) Confidence in one^s knowledge of fundamentals leads to 
forceful satisfaction. Success in studying involves not only 
the forward movement but also the deep-going knowledge of 
the subject. The daily or detailed advance, important as it 
is, must mean that the pupil is getting a grip on the larger 
whole of the subject. Battles fought and won become signifi- 
cant only when they are known to contribute to the ultimate 
triumph of a huge campaign. The pupil should be aroused 
to ask himself in reviews, in conferences, in reports, etc., what 
he understands of the more fundamental meanings of history, 
mathematics, science. Do these subjects begin to appear with 
far-reaching relations or are they still merely unattached, daily 
assignments and facts? The sense of familiarity with the 
whole subject contributes to the pleasant feeling tone. It 
is the joy of the engineer, of the artist, of the public speaker 
that he can move among details with the easy advance of one 
who knows what these facts mean to one another and to 
society. He feels at home and therefore is secure and satis- 
fied. This is peace leading to power — harmony cahn with 
strength. 

(3) Moods are the emotional climate that exhilarate or depress 
the pupil at work. Another condition of studying is developed 
by those subtle states termed moods. It is not always pos- 
sible to determine their origin. Superstition, ancient and 
modem, has a motley variety of explanations, but none of 
them deserves serious notice. Modem abnormal psychology 
suggests several reasons, some of which doubtless accoimt for 
a few of these moods. The pensiveness of a gray day in 
autumn, with the air misty from burning leaves and sugges- 
tive of loneliness, loss, defeat, produces a state of feelings 
quite different from the cheerful activity of a bright day in 



Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to Studying 87 

June or an April morning along the coast of Maine. We 
smile at the moods of young people, their loves and their 
dreams, and our smiling evinces a careless neglect of one of the 
most potent forces in adolescent life. Whatever causes these 
moods, the fact of their existence must be recognized, especially 
during high school years. 

At the time when the sex instinct assumes its more pro- 
nounced aspects and the individual enters upon perhaps the 
most crisic period of his development, there are boimd to be 
tendencies, preferences, motives, and activities that seriously 
affect his intellectual growth. The additional fact that in the 
very nature of things this crisis must be concealed, and that 
society fails to regard the fancies of youth very seriously, in- 
creases the handicap that now threatens to swerve the pupil 
f romi sustained effort in school. At present there is apparently 
nothing that can be done to lighten the sweet burden of 
early love or mere attraction between the sexes. The yoimg 
people don't want it supervised, and too much attention to it 
on the part of parents and teachers may frustrate the very 
purpose of control. It is an experience that most people pass 
through and strangely forget. Call it silly, temporary, and let 
it go at that 1 

But high school pupils must study, and it is the function of 
organized education to make this possible imder the most 
advantageous conditions. Sweet melancholy, indifference, 
loneliness, " wanderlust," or cheerfulness, excitement, impul- 
siveness, confidence, etc., are moods that swing the pupil 
back and forth at the time when he meets new subjects, new 
methods, new social conditions in the high school. Obviously, 
the supervisor of study must deal with this problem. Tact, 
insight, sympathy, and fairness must somehow blend with the 



88 Supervised Stvdy 

necessary observance of routine, effort, and application day 
by day. The private longings and feelings of the pupils must 
be understood and their symptoms recognized. 

(4) The dash between self-preservative and social instincts 
tends to hinder progress in studying. Two important facts 
must be noted as common among high school pupils. One of 
these concerns the personal appearance of the pupil ; the other, 
his popularity. 

{a) The PupiVs Appearance. Ridicule is one of society's 
cruelest weapons of preventing strangers from breaking into a 
desured group. In high school the pupil whose garments are 
plain or limited in variety is likely to be avoided by the better 
dressed. This is true especially among the girls. Cliques are 
imavoidable; it matters not how one may legislate against 
secret organizations in the high school. All of us choose com- 
panions who have a sufficient number of qualities in conmion 
with our own and a few desirable ones lacking in ourselves. 
Personal appearance plays an important r61e in such selection 
of friendships. It works harm to the poor pupil whose parents 
cannot afford to provide her with many or pretty clothes. She 
feels shut out, and may grieve in secret over the slights and 
ridicule thoughtlessly expressed by her schoolmates. To some 
it may serve as a powerful incentive to show her frivolous 
classmates that clothes are not everything; to others it be- 
comes a heavy, gloomy burden that shuts out the joy of school 
days. Such pupils tend to leave school. 

Teachers should know also how peculiarly sensitive the tall 
boy is in a class of pupils smaller in size although of the same 
age as his own. We want to conform to the group we like or 
make it conform to ourselves, but obviously the oversized 
boy can do neither. While less prevalent in the high school 



Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to Studying 89 

than in the lower graxles, an oversized first-year pupil in long 
trousers feels embarrassed among pupils in knickerbockers. 
He too wants to break away from such conditions, and is likely 
to leave school for blind-alley occupations. Studying has been 
:hecked by the feeling tone of embarrassment due to the pupil 
3eing unfavorably conspicuous in a group where a prevailing 
>chool organization compels him to belong. 

Physical deformity and facial ugliness have been foimd pro- 
iuctive of similar results. Many of these " different " pupils 
ire intellectually capable. They are in every sense of the word 
lormal as individuals, but in the constant clash of group life 
Jiey are crushed, submerged, ostracized for no fault of their 
)wn. Again, the teacher's problem is acute. To segregate 
Jiem would be unfair and destructive. They deserve notice, 
dndliness, and friendship. Appeal to that finer sense of jus- 
ice and heroism deep in all young people would be one remedy ; 
ippeal to personal courage through the study of great biogra- 
>hies and the literature of success where men and women of 
lumble origin are seen to rise to pinnacles of power and fame 
70uld be another ; a spirited, often repeated, and amplified 
nterpretation of democracy, with its gospel of opportunity, 
irould be a third. 

(p) Popularity. This is often arbitrary and cheap. The 
•upil who makes it an end may suffer shameful defeat. It 
oes not always depend on favorable appearance, but more 
f ten on the finer qualities of grit, cheerfulness, cooperativeness, 
chievement. The brilliant debater, long pimter, fast runner, 
killftd basket-ball player, are usually candidates for the Popu- 
ir Club. But many a quiet, resourceful, studious pupil is 
lected to universal esteem in the school. Others who fail to 
idn popular favor, and who really deserve it, suffer secret 



90 Supervised Study 

humiliation. They brood or resort to unworthy means to be- 
come popular in less desirable groups. Whatever the cause 
or circumstances, impopularity in many cases is a serious 
hindrance to study. It tends to throw the pupil too much 
upon himself in a morbid, self-pitying, or self-depredating 
way, and therefore weakens the resolution to forge ahead or 
to grapple more earnestly with difficulties. 

The remedy, in part, is that mentioned under the preceding 
head. Furthermore, in public addresses, in an impartial atti- 
tude toward the pupils, in rewarding effort as well as achieve- 
ment, in cordial initiative toward those pupils whose timidity 
prevents their own approach to the teacher for a confidential 
chat — encouragement, excitement toward better effort may be 
effected. In general, however, attention should be directed 
to these common conditions of individual life and some place 
assigned them in one's judgment of the pupil's attitude toward 
school work. 

(s) Weaiher and climate affect the pupiVs feeling tone. This 
statement hardly needs elaboration. None of us feels active 
on a muggy or rainy day. Intense summer heat weakens 
resiliency; the climate of the rigorous north or its milder 
forms in less extreme latitudes has a sting and " pimch " 
that makes our whole being tingle with the joy of work. Ex- 
treme summer climate, however, is less conducive to sustained 
effort. It is well known how intimately geography, topog- 
raphy, and history are related. The operas of Italy are 
essentially different in atmosphere, mode of treatment, char- 
acter of music from those of Wagner and Strauss. The effect 
of the southland on Byron's poetry is easily imderstood. The 
difference between Boccaccio and Wordsworth is largely due 
to climate. One may notice the same fact as accoimting for 



Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to Studying 91 

the musical lilt of the Italian and Spanish languages and the 
rugged crash of the German, the Swedish, the Russian. Who 
could speak like a German in the balmy peace of the Medi- 
terranean, or like a lute-fiingering Italian in the moimtains of 
Scandinavia or Scotland ! 

Once more the teacher's task adds a responsibility. The 
day's success depends somewhat on simshine and on rain. 
Climate and weather require adjustments in classroom pro- 
cedure, just as the psychologically trained organist adjusts 
the key of the hymn time to the weather conditions, thereby 
assenting to a profoimd truth that religion and climate have 
more in common than theologians are willing to admit. 

c. Distractions. In addition to the foregoing conditions 
and hindrances, some of which are annoying distractions, the 
pupil is hampered by noise, confusion, worry, conflicting aims, 
and other forms of unfavorable environment. Study in a 
room where recitations are being held, or near a factory, rail- 
road, and roughly paved street, is more diflSicult than in a 
neighborhood where quiet is usual. It should be noted, how- 
ever, that investigations have shown how the nature of the 
distraction affects the intensity of disturbance. Distractions 
similar to the work the pupil is engaged in are more serious 
than those wholly different in character. For example, if 
the pupil is studying English literature while some one near by 
is reading a novel aloud or reciting on some other phase of the 
subject, he is likely to be more disturbed than if some one is 
demonstrating a proposition in geometry or dressing a board. 
The noise would at first distract his attention, but the interests 
of work and distraction being quite dissimilar, the pupil with 
some effort can eventually concentrate on his work and wholly 
disregard the noise. But the novel or recitation are similar 



92 



Supervised Study 



to the work he is doing. Attention is tempted to run back 
and forth. Concentration is focused on English, but with ill 
success on any special form of it at the time. 

Alternate seat and recitation work would be more advan- 
tageous if, for example, one section studied spelling while 
another recited mathematics, the section studying having just 
previously recited on mathematics. 

(i) Distribution of Distractions, N. C. Johnson^ foimd the 
following distributions of distractions : 



Table XII. — Tending to interfere with Study 



Reading stories 
Parties . . 
Violent exercise 
Baseball . . 
Theater . . 
Running . . . 
Bicycling 
Dancing . . . 



i6 
7 

7 
7 
4 
4 



2 

4 



I 
I 



lO 

4 
6 

I 

I 



II 
8 

3 



Total 



37 

31 

13 
8 

8 

5 
5 
4 



(2) Fatigue is commonly referred to as one of the most, 
serious hindrances to study. Its most easily noticed symptoms 
are a depreciation in the quality of work, a decrease in the 
amoimt accomplished, and a growing failure to attend to what 
is going on. The result is a loss of interest in studying and a 
tendency to loaf or to sleep throughout the day. Eventually, 
fatigue may lead to complete nervous exhaustion manifested 
in acute sensitiveness, irritability, love of contentions, and 
abnormal forms of excitement, and finally hysteria. 

One must not be too hasty to judge symptoms of indiflference 

* School RevieWf Vol. VII, May, 1899. 



Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to SPudying 93 

as those of fatigue. Many other factors reduce responsive- 
ness. The subject may have become more diflSicult, ill health 
may have begim its inroads, the teacher's methods may lack 
spring and " punch." There is more danger of girls becoming 
seriously fatigued than that boys will be exhausted* Girls 
are more likely to remain indoors, while boys find abundance of 
exercise. Great care should be taken to suit assignments to 
the health conditions of adolescence and to the factors of 
physiological and psychological development taking place at 
this time. 

General Summary 

The considerations deemed significant in this chapter have 
far-reaching applications. Health, housing, and mental con- 
ditions are of the first importance in the life of every individual. 
Teachers need to know these facts for their own sake and for 
the good of their pupils. The supervision of study, then, is 
more than overseeing the pupil at work on an assignment — 
it includes the supervision of his environment, the conditions 
that make or mar study eflBiciency. The teacher, as far as 
possible, should know the fundamentals of school hygiene, and 
throughout the school there should be a concerted effort to 
apply the principles of physiology and psychology to the 
pupil as a learner. This broader aspect of duty will eventually 
make the school more vitally a part of the home life of each 
child. Such a democratic service must be viewed as ideal. 



CHAPTER V 

THE ORGANIZATION OF SUPERVISED STUDY 

I. Inevitable Variety in Schemes of Organization 

The medical student spends four long and hard years study- 
ing the scientific theory of preventing and ciuing disease. 
Upon graduation he immediately begins, as an interne, to ap- 
ply the knowledge gleaned from his several coiurses. Later he 
opens an office of his own, — " begins to practice." Inevitably 
and invariably he finds that the cases of his patients present 
symptoms and combinations quite different from similar 
cases described in textbooks and studied at the medical 
school. He finds it necessary to adapt his knowledge to 
the case in hand. Each case must be treated according to 
its own causes and symptoms. Similar conditions obtain in 
theological seminaries. Men are there taught, among other 
things, to preach by set homiletic rules. But the young 
minister soon finds that preaching by set rules is likely to 
lead to failiure on the frontier. If he is wide awake, stirred 
to white heat by some overwhelming civic or moral conditions, 
then conviction, zeal, courage, tender solicitude, will force him 
to modify rules and sermon outlines. He will preach with 
fire, abandon, magnetism, and the sine qua non of success 
everywhere — sincerity. It is so in all professions. The 
preparatory coiurses must deal with certain f imdamental prin- 

94 



The Organization of Supervised Study 95 

dples. But life is full of varieties ; they appear, one cannot 
tell when or where or how. The successful man is he who can 
take principles and by sane judgment apply them to the 
variations from type cases, tj^ sermons, tj^ bridges, etc. 

The foregoing analogies apply equally well to the profession 
of teaching. Normal schools and departments of education 
present certain principles of education and illustrate various 
methods of teaching. The yoimg teacher in her first school 
may believe that now at last her careful preparation can be 
applied in all details to the class or subject over which she is 
responsible. Alas and alack ! Again life's variations upset 
the wisest rules and advice. If she adheres rigidly to all 
the details of her preparation, she may succeed, but more than 
likely the effort to dovetail professional preparation into 
local and individual peculiarities will result in failure, despair, 
and tears. Teachers with experience are, therefore, usually 
more valuable to a school than a highly trained newcomer. 
It is essential to use common sense, judgment, native shrewd- 
ness in dealing with school conditions. There is no " general 
method " of teaching every subject, everywhere, to all kinds 
of pupils. OriginaUty, initiative, independent thinking, must 
dominate the teacher's methods. 

For this reason it is not surprising to find that in attempting 
to administer supervised study, superintendents and teachers 
have devised a considerable number and variety of methods 
of organization. Some of these methods prima facie seem 
wholly inadequate. Others probably are effective in the 
localities where they are used, but if employed elsewhere 
perhaps would be less effective. Investigations are going on 
that aim to ascertain the relative effectiveness of some of 
these methods. At present writing, however, very few data 



^ 



g6 Supervised Study 

are obtainable, and these refer only to one type of supervised 
study in relation to none at all. The methods to be discussed 
in these chapters are now being used all over this country. 
Their variety indicates serious interest in arriving at some 
organization that will advance the pupil's opportimities to 
reach his maximiun ability. 

The methods now employed may conveniently be grouped 
imder the following main heads : General Organization, em- 
bracing the usual assembly hall, conferences, study period, 
study program, and eclectic plans ; the Subject Organization, 
embracing the various forms of divided period, study period 
for each subject, alternate periods, and occasional super- 
vision plans. 

II. General Plans of Supervised Study 

They are called " general " because no attempt is made 
under these plans to assign each teacher the task of teaching 
pupils to study the subject in her charge. The teacher's 
work is confined to teaching the subject ; others are assigned 
the task of supervising the pupils at work on this or any other 
course. Some of the plans under this head obviously do not 
deserve the name supervised study, while others depend so 
much on the luiique ability of the person in charge and on 
considerable expenditure of money that they are quite beyond 
the reach of the average school. These plans will now be 
discussed in detail. 

I. The General Assembly Hall Study Period. In practi- 
cally every school one large room is called the study hall. 
Here pupils gather during vacant periods to study whatever 
course they choose. As a rule many are in the room. In 
some schools this room is the assembly hall; in others, one 



The Organization of Supervised Study 97 

of the larger classrooms. In one high school the author 
found the study hall occupied by nearly one hundred pupils 
from all classes of the school. The study period is in charge 
of one person, who may be the principal, vice principal, a 
teacher, or a student monitor. In some schools the librarian 
is assigned this task of police duty. When the number of 
pupils is exceptionally large, a certain school employs three 
teachers, who stand guard over the behavior and attention ( ?) 
of the pupils. Principals vary the method of supervision 
according to local conditions. In some schools teachers are 
assigned to groups of fifty pupils. In others there is a special 
teacher known as the assembly hall teacher, or there is one 
person, as the assistant principal, who remains in the room 
throughout the school day. The practice in one school has 
been to require only freshmen to use the study hall. For 
reasons not wholly clear to the writer it is customary in 
other schools to limit the use of the study hall to pupils in 
mechanical drawing and bookkeeping, or English all year, 
or history only. In some schools the hall is controlled entirely 
by student government. 

Criticism of Study Hall, However appropriate it may 
be to call these rooms study halls, they are not, and under 
the most favorable conditions could not be, classed as super- 
vised study halls. In the first place, the number of pupils is 
too large for one teacher without a more specific differentia- 
tion of groups according to abilities or mental types. Again, 
one teacher ought not to be expected to know the thousand 
and one things of all subjects. Furthermore, the teacher in 
charge is incorrectly assumed to be present to help the pupil 
do his own work. Supervised study does not mean doing 
the pupil's work for him. In the fourth place, there is insuffi- 



98 Supervised SPudy 

cient time to be of service to more than a very few. Again, 
the teacher as a rule waits for the pupil to call for help — 
there is little or no attempt by the supervisor to examine 
the methods of every pupil. The teacher simply waits for 
difficulties to appear. Again, however careful every one 
may be there are inevitable distractions in these halls. Un- 
favorable study conditions obtain. 

The fact is that to call these rooms study halls is a grave 
misnomer. Under the best conditions they cannot fulfill 
the requirements of soimd study supervision. Some con- 
scientious pupils doubtless find them helpful, especially before 
and after school when the length of the school day permits 
their being open. They may be better than conditions at 
home in many cases. But they do not provide what pupils 
actually need, — namely, definite and frequent instruction in 
correct methods of study. 

2. The Conference Plans. These are of two kinds — the 
Stated Conference and Appointments. The former is not in- 
frequent. Some principals require teachers to remain each 
day for a half hoiu: after the regular recitation schedule is 
over. Pupils may then consult their own teachers. Doubt- 
less the plan is far superior to the study hall when used as 
a supplement to the latter, for opportimities are given the 
pupils to ask for advice, to discuss difficulties, and teachers 
thereby learn many of the personal peculiarities of their 
pupils. Under whatever system study is supervised, the 
conference period should be maintained. Informal, personal, 
friendly, it offers possibilities of influence that probably no 
other method can provide. The conference hour at Teachers' 
Institutes is frequently more helpful than the formal lec- 
tures. The psychology of group and formal instruction is 



I 



The Organization of Supervised Study 99 

necessarily different from the individual conversational 
method. Both are important, but for the best results each 
is necessary to the other. 

An elaborate form of the Stated Conference is maintained 
for first-year pupils in the high schools of Pittsburgh, Pa.^ 
One period out of four, each week, is devoted to special super- 
vision of study. At that period no assignment of lessons is 
made, and no preparation required of the pupils. It is vari- 
ously called the " conducted study period," the " conference 
period," and the " imassigned lesson period." It fulfQls a 
threefold purpose : 

1. To relieve first-year pupils from the strain of a too heavy 
schedule and to improve the quality of work imdertaken. 

2. To give the teacher an opportunity to train pupils to 
think, to attack new topics properly, and to secure careful 
and accurate reviews. 

3. To afford opportimity for special and individual help 
to pupils weak or temporarily disabled on accoimt of illness 
or who for other reasons are behind in their work. 

The work became operative in September, 1910, and is used 
in English, algebra, Latin or German, and elementary science. 
The plan bears very close resemblance to the DeKalb type 
discussed in the next chapter. 

Conference by Appointment. This differs from the 
stated conference in several respects. Usually the appoint- 
ment is made by the teacher. Weak pupils are asked to 
confer with the teacher or the principal for various reasons. 
The request itself may savor of some penalty. There is a 
presumption at the outset that the pupil has failed to meet 

» Rynearson, "The Conference Hour in the Pittsburgh High School," 
School Review, Vol. XX, 1912, pp. 246-253. 



7834^k * 



loo Supervised Study 

requirements. Bad news travels fast and it does not in- 
frequently happen that the pupils whisper the news abroad 
that so and so " had to see the principal or teacher to-day. '^ 
Trivial as this may seem, it nevertheless deserves consideration 
in dealing with high school people. Appointments should 
be made inconspicuously. Although they may be necessary 
for disciplinary reasons, this fact should be minimized at 
first. Discipline to be effective must rest on facts carefully 
and justly obtained. The conference by appointment is 
also employed as a means of arousing weak and backward 
pupils. In many schools it is confined to such cases. There 
are occasions, however, when appointments should be made 
with advanced and faithful pupils for their further encourage- 
ment and progress. 

(i) The Tecknic of the Conference Hour, Whatever the 
type employed, it is essential that the principal or teacher 
conduct the conference with some system. For this reason 
it should be insisted on that pupils come pimctually. The 
teacher should be just as prompt. Much time may be wasted 
in conference and serious injustice be done by requiring pupils 
to wait mmecessarily long. The conference should be well 
planned. Its program should be definitely in the teacher's 
mind, although it need not be followed in every detail. But 
in the informal discussion there is a tendency to overstress 
certain incidental points and to neglect the most important. 
For this reason the teacher should control the conversation, 
bringing it to a close as quickly as possible, and reach some 
definite decision. The conference should be definite, in 
other words. Even if the decision cannot be fijial, the pupil 
should carry away some definite plan or information. 

Moreover, the general tone of the conference should be as 



^ 



The Organization of Supervised Study loi 

informal as possible. Authority, dignity, officiousness, have 
their value in dealing with certain kinds of people, but in 
high school it is well to establish friendly relations with the 
pupils, to make the conference period so personal that here 
the pupils will unfold secret dilEculties or problems that 
are fimdamental in their studying. Opportunity should be 
given pupils to state their problems clearly, and by tactful 
questions the teacher should encourage them to discuss phases 
of studying that instinctive timidity otherwise would prevent 
them from mentioning. If the teacher shows a tactful, 
sympathetic interest in the pupil's life during the conference 
much may be accomplished by this means. Detailed technic 
is illustrated in Part II under the various subjects. 

The conference periods, when an integral part of the general 
organization of supervised study, should be carefully recorded. 
They can be made a basis of marking. By reference to them 
the teacher may be better able to judge of the amount and 
quality of the pupil's progress. Appointments should be 
kept in a conference book or form part of a General Record. 
A suggestive page in such a conference book is given below. 
If the conference is stated, the pupil's name, date, and reason for 
conference can be recorded after the hour. If by appoint- 
ment, the engagement is made by record on the top of the page. 
The conference itself with the teacher's decision occupies 
most of the space. By confining the reference to one page 
of the size here suggested, little time will be required for 
making the record. 

If so preferred, a loose-leaf book can be employed with 
similar type of record. All the conferences with the same 
pupil can then be kept together. Or cards serve the same 
purpose. If cards are used, it probably would be more con- 



I02 Supervised Study 

Sfecdcbn Page of Contexence Book 



Name op Pupil 



Date of Conference. 



Reason of Conference. 



THE CONFERENCE 
Pupil's Side 



Principal's or Teacher's Decision. 



FiGORE m 



The Organization of Supervised Study 103 

venient for filing purposes to use the long dimensions of the 
card as top and bottom. The method of recording would 
be the same. 

(2) Benefits of Conferences. Rynearson^ states that 
teachers employing the conference foimd it advantageous 
for the following reasons : 

1. It affords a practical and efficient means of helping the 
first-year pupil to keep up to grade. 

2. It combines happily the class and individual methods 
of teaching. 

3. It serves the useful purpose of a general " clearing 
house " period for review, drill, discussion of obscure principles, 
and for personal work with the individual pupil. 

4. It encourages the pupil to express his doubts and 
difficulties, without fear of low grades. 

5. Through intimate personal contact it stimulates a 
feeling of mental sympathy and helpfulness between teacher 
and pupil, and obviates the doubtful practice of keeping chil- 
dren in school to make up work. 

3. The Study Coach. Under this system of supervised 
study one person devotes all of his time to the work of coach- 
ing pupils individually in their studying. The person is 
employed for this purpose alone, as at Jackson, Mich. All 
the pupils of the high school are referred to the study coach 
during the school day. Regular office hours are conducted, 
the pupils calling when they need assistance or being required 
to consult the coach because of unsatisfactory work. Study 
coaching is of two kinds — the unassigned teacher and the 
general study coach. 

a. The Unassigned Teacher. This plan was highly 

1 Op. dt. 



I04 Supervised Study 

developed by Superintendent Spaulding at Newton, Mass. 
It has recently been introduced at Hastings, Neb. The un- 
assigned teacher has no regular class, either in the elementary 
or the high school grades. The regular work of the classroom 
is supplemented by that of the imassigned teacher who usually 
is kept busy throughout the day coaching or tutoring the 
various groups needing special instruction. It requires, of 
course, a rather unique type of teacher, one who has not 
formed almost ineradicable habits of class teaching. Study 
coaching is individual teaching exclusively and demands a 
type of personality and method essentially different from the 
usual procedure of the classroom. At Newton, Mass., the 
best students of the Normal School are employed for this 
work. 

(i) Technic of the Unassigned Teacher, The operation 
of the plan ^ is described as follows : 

"The day's work of an unassigned teacher may be something like 
this. For the first half-hour in the morning there comes to her 
room a little group of half a dozen children from a third grade. 
The third grade teacher has selected these children because they 
are all having difficulty, beyond that experienced by their class- 
mates, with some process in arithmetic. . . . The unassigned 
teacher has previously been informed as fully as possible concerning 
the condition and needs of these children. The half-hour is spent 
in discovering still more accurately the peculiar difficulties of each 
one, and in giving each just the assistance and practice which he 
requires. This work is individual so far as need be ; at the same 
time the group can usually work together advantageously. 

" At the end of the half-hour these children return to their class 
and a group of children come from the seventh grade; perhaps 
there are only four in this group. They are not having unusual 

^ W. H. Holmes, op. cit.j pp. 69, 70. 



I 



The Organization of Supervised Sttuiy 105 

diflSculty with any subject. . . . They need more work and more 
difficult work than their class as a whole is capable of. Yet they 
are not fitted to pass at once successfully into the class next above 
theirs. The unassigned teacher prepares them for this long 
advance step. She takes them through the essentials which sepa- 
rate the work of their present class from that of the class which 
they are preparing to enter. To-day and perhaps for several days, 
the work is in arithmetic. Other days it will be history or geog- 
raphy or grammar. 

" When the period is over, these children give their place to a 
group from a fourth grade. They are temporarily behind the work 
of this class . . . they have been kept out for several weeks on 
accoimt of illness. The unassigned teacher's work with these will 
be similar in purpose to that of the last group ; she will take them 
rapidly over the essentials covered by the class during their enforced 
absence. 

" The unassigned teacher's fourth period is occupied with a full 
division, perhaps twenty pupils, of children of the fifth grade. They 
come from a large class composed of two grades, the fourth and 
fifth. To relieve the regular teacher of some of her many recita- 
tions, the imassigned teacher takes the work in arithmetic with the 
fifth grade division. 

" The fifth period is devoted to a single child. He does not belong 
to any grade, judged by the evidence of ability which he shows when 
assigned any definite task. So he probably comes from a class 
in which he is not too conspicuous on account of his size. The 
unassigned teacher tries patiently to determine just what the serious 
obstacles in the child's advancement are. He may have to be sent 
to a special class for backward children. Possibly with sufficient 
individual attention he can work with some regular class." 

The foregoing description of the unassigned teacher's work 
in the elementary school suggests what could be done and 
what needs to be done in the high school. Similar conditions 



io6 Supervised Study 

obtain here. In small high schools the regular teacher, even 
with conferences, does not have time for the work already 
described. In some districts where the high school teacher 
also teaches grammar grades, obviously the day's schedule is 
already crowded. Unassigned teachers, although necessitat- 
ing an additional salary, could save communities money 
and time. Normal School graduates or graduates from 
Schools of Education might be required to do this type of 
work as a " practice year '' before receiving full license to 
teach. 

In connection with this work it is important to keep accurate 
records of the process. Many schools fail to provide for 
permanent records of the pupil's school career. This is un- 
fair to the pupil, to the parent, and also to the new teacher, 
who without such records must either begin haphazardly the 
same kind of work or make wasteful omissions and repetitions 
— both of them increasing the cost of school instruction. 
The following record sheets are suggested not with any desire 
to increase " red tape " or to burden the teachers with secre- 
tarial work, but every teacher should have accurate knowl- 
edge of as many factors in the pupil's progress as are legiti- 
mately possible. By referring to records Uke the following 
the career of the pupil is an " open book " capable of being 
interpreted and more effectively developed. 

This card or blank should be triplicated ; i.e., the unassigned 
teacher is given one by the pupil at the time of the transfer, 
a duplicate is sent to the principal, and the regular teacher 
keeps one. By carbon paper these three copies can be made 
with one writing. When the period of special instruction 
is over, the lower section of the blank is returned, one copy 
to the regular teacher by the pupil, and another copy to the 



The Organization of Supervised Study 107 

Specimen Transfer Card 



TRANSFER CARD TO UNASSIGNED TEACHER 

Name op Pupil «__« 

School Year — ist, 2d, 3d, 4th (imderacore) 

Date op Transfer 



Subject or Number op Course. 
Reasons op Transfer 



(Perforatioii) 

DISMISSAL CARD TO REGULAR TEACHER 
Name of Pupil 



School Year — ist, 2d, 3d, 4th (underscore) 
Date op Dismissal 



No. Days Special Instruction. 



Suggestions for Dealing with Pupil. 



Signature op Unassigned Teacher 



Fteuss IV 



io8 Supervised Sttidy 

principal's office, the unassigned teacher retaining the original. 
In this way the pupil's transfer and special instruction are 
checked by the three officials immediately concerned. The 
work of the regular and unassigned teachers is properly 
recorded by themselves, and the principal's records of each 
pupil are likewise complete. The card is simple and the in- 
formation required is essential. Only a small amount of 
time is needed in making the record. It helps to keep the 
organization of supervised study intact as a regular, vital 
part of the school work, and may serve also to impress the 
pupil with its fundamental importance, its relation to his 
whole career as a pupil in the high school. It keeps the 
pupil from drifting through the school at this particular 
point. His studying is supervised not loosely but system- 
atically. 

b. The General Sttidy Coach. This type differs from that 
of the imassigned teacher in being essentially individual and 
informal. The pupils take the initiative, consulting the 
coach as needs arise. They are not transferred to his charge. 
The coach has a consultation office during school hours, and 
the pupils may confer with him during their vacant periods. 
It calls for a person with broad and accurate knowledge of 
many subjects, although not necessarily as deep going as 
the knowledge of subject matter by the teachers of the various 
subjects. The study coach, more over, shou ld know con - 
si derable psychologv, especially educational psychology, and 
its se veral applications in the l^ arping'^process. Syinpathy, 
tact, patience are always essential. Insight into the motives 
and attitudes of the pupils is equally important, for high 
school pupi ls are like l y to Tnisu^g^fi tl^f^ gtnHy coac h unless he 
can iorestall such behavior by strong, masterful attacks. 



\ 



The Organization of Supervised Sttuly 109 

Pupils will try to use the coach as a crutch, trying to persuade 
him to do the studying for them. If weak]^ indulgent, craving 
popularity, he may be tempted to do more for the pupils 
than is for their intellectual and moral good. 

(i) Technic of Sti4dy Coaching, Several points need em- 
phasis in this connection. The study coach must first of all 
learn in detail the nature of the difficulties troubling the pupil. 
The teacher will supply her interpretation of the difficulties. 
But this is not enough. The pupil must be encouraged 
to state the difficulties as they appear to him. At first he 
may give only vague replies, make sweeping generalities none 
of which is specific enough to serve the coach. It becomes 
necessary, then, for the coach to analyze the situation by 
careful questions. The following case from the writer's 
own experience will illustrate this: 

A young senior found geometry very difficult. Unfortunately, 
the teacher possessed a rather repellent personality and seemed 
wholly out of patience with this girl. This pupil was eager to 
graduate in the spring, but could not do so without credits in geome- 
try as entrance requirements to the university. She "thought" 
she understood the theorem and proposition preceding the day's 
lesson. On being asked to prove it she failed. Step by step, page 
by page she aiid the coach retraced the course until the first theorem 
of the book was reached. She knew nothing about anything in the 
whole course! The situation was grave enough. Was the girl 
"born short" in geometry? The following conversation took 
place : 

Q, What do you regard as your main difficulty? A. I believe 
it is because I don't understand the figures. Q. What do you 
mean by not being able to understand the figures? A. I can't see 
what the lines mean — they are all lines to me, but the teacher says 
they mean objects. I can't see the objects. I don't know what 



no Supervised SPudy 

angles are, anyway, in this book. Q. Can you draw the outline of 
a cube? A. Yes. (She drew a cube.) Q. Now, can you see that 
cube — does it look like the cube on the desk yonder? A, Well, I 
think it does when I compare them, but I can't always see it so. 
Q, Has this been your main difficulty throughout geometry? 
A, Yes, I had the same trouble before coming here. Q, Oh, you 
studied geometry in another school before coming here? A. Yes 

in . They used a different kind of textbook with figures 

that looked very different from those in this book. Besides, the 
teacher there had patience enough to try to explain a few things. 
But this one — Q, You don't recognize the figures in this geome- 
try? A, Well, they look queer, turned around. A and B were 
in different places in the other book. Q, I suppose you memorized 
a great deal? A. Well, yes, but I could do originals fairly well, 
etc. 

Here was a case of weak visual imaging, resulting in a 
vague perception of space relations. The girl had no back- 
ground that could be reinterpreted according to the different 
textbook. Unable to visualize the figures and having dealt 
with figures quite different, she had a double handicap. By 
requiring her to draw every line and to give an adequate 
explanation of each step with reasons therefor, she was 
finally coached beyond the passing mark. Other factors 
operated in her case. She was fond of social life, fond of the 
boys, athletics, sewing, textile work. She frankly admitted 
all of these to the coach who gave them due weight. 

The pupil's problem must be clearly understood before the 
coach attempts to supervise the pupil's studying. Often it 
is a very delicate matter to analyze this problem. One must 
not be inordinately Inquisitive, nor encourage unkind or 
unjust criticism of the teacher's work. It often happens, 
however, that the teacher is largely to blame. A certain 



% 



The Organization of Supervised Study iii 

amount of knowledge about the teacher's procedure is im- 
portant in dealing with the pupil's difficulties. But criticism 
should never be encouraged beyond the point involved and 
then only in strict confidence. The following suggestions for 
effective study coaching have been found helpful : 

1. Address the pupil kindly with a smile, with a friendly grip of 
the hand. 

2. Ask him to be frank in stating the difficulty. All he says will 
be regarded absolutely confidential. 

3. Ascertain as many details as possible bearing on the pupil's 
general attitude toward the subject. 

4. Begin the actual coaching by requiring the pupil to read the 
problem slowly with proper emphasis on important words. Then 
set him to work as much of the problem as he can. 

5. When the pupil reaches the difficulty, analyze the situation 
carefully for the reason of the difficulty. It has a reason — an 
important psychological one. Use analogies from common day 
experience. Attack the difficulty by appealing to senses other than 
sight. Use manual cpnstruction if possible. Use blackboard 
together with the pupil. Shift the angle of attack until the pupil 
says, "I see it I" K after many trials he cannot "see it," then tell 
him what to do. 

6. Prevent wasteful energy and time by stopping the pupil as 
soon as he has begun a wrong procedure. The factor of independ- 
ence is provided for in requiring a reason for every step taken 
and at point of difficulty stating reasons for attempting this or that 
next step. 

7. If there is a group of pupils facing the same difficulty, all of 
them should be given opportunity to state reasons for processes 
employed in the solution of the problem. 

8. Do not work any problem for the pupil. He must do all the 
work under tactful suggestion by questions. But when absolutely 
necessary, supply information. 



112 Supervised Sttuly 

9. Make a record of the difl&culties encountered, number of visits 
made by each pupil, amount of coaching for same kind of diffi- 
culty. (See blank on next page.) 

The study coach is essentially a diagnostician. His 
technic depends upon his knowledge of the pupil, the sub- 
ject matter, and the kinds of difficulties likely to be encoun- 
tered by certain types of pupils. Eventually, it may be 
hoped, every teacher will have the training requisite for this 
type of work. It is individual instruction of the highest 
kind. 

If the work is to have any value for the regular teachers, it 
is necessary that the coach report the essentials of the cases 
under his supervision. It is not necessary or just to the 
pupil to repeat any of the criticism as having been made by 
him. The criticisms, however, may be worth while and should 
be mentioned to the teacher impersonally. The record of 
the findings of the study coach become a vital part of the 
history of each high school pupil. For this reason they should 
be carefully filed in the prindpaFs office beyond the reach of 
any one save the teachers. The blank on opposite page may 
prove suggestive : 

This blank entails very little work. It provides room for a 
statement of the general difficulty with this pupil and then 
in detail specific difficulties in the various subjects. By 
keeping a record of the dates on which coach and pupil dealt 
with the trouble, it will be possible to determine the pupil's 
rate of progress and also to stimulate attention by referring 
him to the fact that he has already been coached on this 
type of difficulty several times. 

On the reverse of the card the coach might index the 
types or kinds of difficulties presented and refer to them by 



The Organization of Supervised Study 

SPEcniEK Recokd Sheet or Stddy Coach 



RECORD BLANK OF STUDY COACH 










SPECIAL DrFFICULTIES 


BCTncrarv 


1 








































































































































































































- 


















































































































- 





































































































































































































































































































































114 Supervised Study 

their index letters or numbers. This saves time. The coach 
will find that difficulties fall in large groups. These are 
discussed under " Conditions and Hindrances " and also in Part 
II \mder the several subjects. 

A more elaborate method of recording is suggested in the 
following blank: 



RECORD BLANK OF STUDY COACH 
Name of Pupil 



School Year — ist, 2d, $d, 4th (underscore) 

Pupil's Standing in Elementary School by Subjects. 



Previous Standing in High School by Subjects. 



Social Activities now Engaged in by Pupil. 



Pupil's Favorite Subject- 



Predominant Mental Image — Visual, Auditory, Motor. 



Teacher's Statement op Pupil's Difficulties. 



Pupil's Statement of His Own Difficulties. 



Figure VI 



k 



The Organization of Supervised Study 115 

Several important factors entering into the pupil's attitude 
toward studying are called for on this card. Investigations 
show that pupils as a rule maintain a certain standard 
throughout their school life. Mediocre pupils in the ele- 
mentary school are rarely superior pupils in high school. 
Excellent pupils in the grades as a rule maintain this excellency 
in the higher classes. It is important for the coach to know 
something of the intellectual history of the case before him if 
he is to suggest to the teacher wise and just methods of dealing 
with the pupil. The social environment preferred by the 
boy or girl is equally significant. It may be too distracting, 
too strenuous, or insufficient. The preference of subject 
matter may mean neglect of this subject because seemingly 
easy or neglect of other subjects because disliked. Mental 
type is also significant because it is likely to afifect method 
of teaching. (See chapter on "Individual Differences.") 

(2) Summary, It is now apparent that the study coach and 
the xmassigned teacher, for both of them may employ similar 
methods of recording, should be well-organized offices, filled 
by persons peculiarly endowed for this kind of work. It may 
not be impossible in schools of education and normal schools 
to evolve such persons with training in mental testing, sta- 
tistical recording, methods of teaching, and a working knowl- 
edge of the subjects in the curriculum. This is a large order, 
but public school education is an immense undertaking. It 
calls for the most efficient service, and some day doubtless will 
be in a position to demand it and pay for it. 

4. The " Delayed Group " Plan. This has recently been 
introduced at Joliet, 111. It aims to anticipate or prevent 
difficulties of studying in the first year of the high school by 
carefully examining the qualifications of entering pupils 



ii6 Supervised Study 

for the new type of work. Dr. J. S. Brown, the principal, 
describes the plan as follows in a personal letter to the 
writer: 

"Our plan, which is beginning to operate, contemplates a careful 
study of the scholastic qualifications of the eighth-grade pupils 
when they come to the high school. This study includes the record 
which they made during their eighth grade and the record which 
they make in the high school for the first four weeks. On this 
basis, we take from the entire group the pupils who, judged by their 
previous record and the opinion of the teacher having them for this 
month of high school work, will not be able to go in the same pace 
as is required of the normal school pupil. These pupils are put 
into a group by themselves and are given a pace for their work 
which enables them to complete twelve weeks' work of the semester 
of eighteen weeks. At the close of this semester there are six weeks 
work yet to do by such a group. In order to do this work, this 
group is immediately put into a vacation school extending from the 
beginning of the week following Commencement until about the 
beginning of August, or a period of six weeks. The summer school 
pace is somewhat modified by the fact that their number of studies 
in such cases is one fewer than in the regular year's work. By such 
a means as this, the 'delayed group' is enabled to spend about 
thirty per cent more time in doing regular work than the regiilar 
group. In this way, such a group comes back to the school in 
September with all the work passed, and does not have to enter 
the second year's work with any kind of handicap." 

This plan has not been in operation long enough to indicate 
any dependable results. 

5. General Directions in Studying. In some schools the 
importance of guiding pupils is recognized by giving platform 
talks on study at the beginning of the term or during the 
session. Teachers sometimes spend part of the period in 




The Organization of Supervised Study 117 

suggesting how to study. • Four of the best methods of this 
type of supervised study will now be considered. 

a. The Study Program. W. C. Reavis ^ has found a 
Pupil's Study Program helpful. Cards with duplicate copies 
for filing in the assembly-room desk are handed to each pupil. 
One side of the card contains a schedule of hours, the other 
side several directions on how to study. The following figure 
shows the form. 



PUPIL'S STUDY PROGRAM 

Name Gb ade 




Hour 


Study 


Recite 


9:00 






9:45 






10 : 30 






II :io 






i:iS 






2:00 






2:4s 






3* 20 






















(over) 



Figure Vn 



* " Importance of a Study Program for High School Pupils," School Review^ 
Jime, 1911, Vol. XIX, pp. 398r-405. 



/ 



ii8 Supervised Study 

This card indicates the pupil's division of time during 
study hall periods. The teacher in charge of the hall is 
then enabled to supervise the pupils while carrying out the 
schedule. On the reverse of the card is printed a list of 
directions. 

Directions for Study 

1. Follow your program regularly. 

2. If possible, study your lesson immediately after the assign- 
ment is made. 

3. Take brief notes and afterwards restudy by outline. 

4. Use dictionary and reference books for points not clearly 
comprehended. 

5. Concentrate your mind so that outside interests will not 
frequently disturb your study. 

6. Do not try to commit exact words until you understand their 
content. 

7. Connect the important facts of the new lesson with facts 
previously learned. 

8. Make comparisons and contrasts when possible. 

9. Carefully review and think over the previous lesson before 
beginning the next. 

10. The extra effort spent on preparation pays the greatest 
intellectual dividends. 

Here is a conscientious attempt to direct pupils while 
at work on their lessons. It is a plan easily adapted to any 
school. The test of effectiveness is stated by Mr. Reavis 
in the article already referred to. He says : 

"During the two and a half years that study has been closely 
supervised and regular programs for each pupil strictly followed, 
three things have been accomplished with more or less success: 
(i) the problem of discipline has been practically solved; (2) con- 



b 



The Organization of Supervised Study 119 

siderable improvement has been made in scholarship ; (3) regular 
hours of home study have been provided for by the large majority 
of the students." 

The benefits of the method are reported by the pupils as follows : 

1. By following a definite program of study I have formed the 
habit of stud3ring a certain lesson at a certain time, and because I 
know that I must study at that time I am always ready. 

2. If a definite program is followed, I can do more and better 
work than if I study in a haphazard fashion. 

3. When following a study program one is never in doubt about 
what to do next. 

4. A study program keeps me from spending too much time on 
favorite subjects. 

5. By following a regular program I waste no time in thinking 
about what I shall do next. Then, too, it keeps me from changing 
tasks when I begin to tire of what I am doing. 

6. By preparing my work regularly I find that I not only have 
better lessons but also have more time for leisure. 

7. The study program has proved so beneficial to me in the prep- 
aration of my lessons that I now follow a regular program for all 
of my work. 

8. I find that by following a regular program of study I always 
study each lesson, whether I accomplish anything or not. At least 
I always know something about each lesson. 

9. I had the habit of always putting off my work until I felt 
just right for study, and as a result made very poor grades, but since 
I have adopted a regular study program my interest in my work has 
greatly increased and I am no longer ashamed of my grades. 

The benefits of this plan then are : (i) improved discipline ; 
(2) finer scholarship ; (3) regular hours of home study ; (4) 
systematic organization of the pupiPs time ; (5) aid in start- 
ing to work; (6) balanced studying; (7) saving of time by 
knowing what to do next ; (8) provision for needful leisure. 



I20 Supervised Study 

The technic of the plan has been snjfidently described in the 
foregoing. The success of the scheme depends obviously 
on the teacher's loyalty to her part of the work. If the dupli- 
cates are not referred to and if the pupils are allowed to 
neglect this schedule, the plan fails. There must be a pilot — 
an overseer who is alert on duty. 

6. The Giles Scheme. A similar method of directing habits 
of study is employed by F. M. Giles at DeKalb, 111., Town- 
ship High School. He does not use the study-program card, 
however. Instead, a bulletin is handed the pupils. It con- 
tains the following directions : ^ 

1. Study away from interruption, — Have a definite place for 
study where you won't be interrupted. 

2. Concentrate, — Put your attention on your work. That is, 
don't let your mind wander to what people are saying, to look out 
the window, to think of other things. In other words, concentra- 
tion helps study. 

3. Get regular study habits, — Have a definite time for study. 
Make up your mind always to have the same time for your work 
and in the end you will get a habit so that work will be easier. 

4. Understand the topic. — In starting to work on your lesson 
be sure that you understand it. Do not try to study topics that 
don't mean anything to you. If the trouble is in words, get your 
dictionary and look them up. If the trouble is in the topic itself, 
ask the teacher to help you. Men who know tell us that it is much 
easier to learn lessons when they are understood than it is when the 
person does not understand them. Take advantage of this fact. 

5. Reason about it. — Read the lesson over as a whole, then try 
to pick out the important points in each paragraph. A well-written 
paragraph has one topic. Do not try to learn everything in the 
lesson, but pick out the chief things and relate the minor topics to 

^ See School Review^ November, 1914, pp. 635-636. 



The Organization of Supervised Stiidy 121 

them. It is a good plan to underscore the most important sentence 
in each paragraph. But don't underscore four or five sentences. 
Too much underscoring is worse than none. Next make out a 
list of the most important topics in the lessons. 

Then, having closed your book, try to give the most important 
facts about these topics out loud, or write out the material on paper. 
Do not open your book for help if you cannot recall a topic. Do the 
best you can imtil you have been over the whole lesson. Then 
open your book and see what you have failed to recall. 

6. Review often, — If you can, study your lessons at two difEerent 
times, that is, study it at night and review it in the morning before 
going to class. Men who have studied the way the mind works 
tell us this review helps one to remember. 

7. Recite and review again. — Repeating what you know and 
review are the most important parts in mastering any material 
whether a rule in mathematics, a topic in history, or a principle in 
science. It is a good plan to review hard topics from week to week. 

8. ^^WUl to learn J^ — Finally, make up your mind that you can 
learn. It has been found from experience that when people have 
the "will to learn," the mind will work much more easily. Do not 
say, "I can't learn it. I am not interested in it.'' When you get 
this attitude it is almost impossible to do successful work. 

9. Talk over your work. — Talk over your school work at home. 
Tell about the interesting things in history, in EngUsh, or in science, 
or your hard problems in mathematics. This will help you master 
your work. 

Here are directions that stimulate the pupil to regard 
studying as something improvable. The supervision of study 
at DeKalb is referred to also in the next chapter. 

c. The University of Chicago Plan. At the University 
High School of the University of Chicago, the following list 
of suggestions formulated by teachers in mathematics and 
by the librarian have proved to be very valuable. 



i 



122 Supervised Sttidy 

Study Helps — For Students in the University High School 

The habits of study formed in school are of greater importance 
than the subjects mastered. The following suggestions, if care- 
fully followed, will help you make your mind an efficient tool. 
Your daily aim should be to learn your lesson in less time, or to 
learn it better in the same time. 

1. Make out a definite daily program, arranging for a definite 
time for each study. You will thus form the habit of concentrating 
your thoughts on the subject at that time. 

2. Provide yourself with the material the lesson requires ; have 
on hand maps, ruler, compass, special paper needed, etc. 

3. Understand the lesson assignment. Learn to take notes on 
the suggestions given by the teacher when the lesson is assigned. 
Take down accurately any references given by the teacher. Should 
a reference be of special importance, star it so that you may readily 
find it. Pick out the important topics of the lesson before beginning 
your study. 

4. In the proper use of a textbook, the following devices will be 
found helpful: index, appendix, footnotes, maps, illustrations, 
vocabulary, etc. Learn to use your textbook, as it will help you to 
use other books. Therefore, imderstand the purpose of the devices 
named above and use them freely. 

5. Do not lose time getting ready for study. Sit down and 
begin to work at once. Concentrate on your work, i.e. put your 
mind on it and let nothing disturb you. Have the will to 
learn. 

6. In many kinds of work it is best to go over the lesson 
quickly, then to go over it again carefully; e.g. before beginning 
to solve a problem in mathematics, read it through and be sure 
you understand what is to be proved before beginning its solu- 
tion ; in translating a foreign language, read the passage through 
and see how much you can understand before consulting the 
vocabulary. 



The Organization of Supervised Study 123 

7. Do individual study. Learn to form your own judgments, to 
work your own problems. Individual study is honest study. 

8. Try to put the facts you are learning into practical use if 
possible. Apply them to present-day conditions. Illustrate them 
in terms familiar to you. 

9. Take an interest in the subjects taught in school. Read the 
periodical literature concerning these. Talk to your parents about 
your school work. Discuss with them points that interest you. 

10. Review your lessons frequently. If there were points you 
did not understand, the review will help you to master them. 

11. Prepare each lesson every day. The habit of meeting each 
requirement punctually is of extreme importance. 

d. The Twin Falls Study Outline. At Twin Falls, Id., 
Mr. Dowman, the principal, in cooperation with the su- 
perintendent, Mr. Hal G. Blue, hands each pupil a copy of 
the following " Study Outline." It is dted here in full as 
an example of painstaking, thoughtful interest in opening up 
the science of study to the pupil. 

Study Outline 

Trying to achieve something without a plan is very ineffective. 
To obtain success in any undertaking requires that a plan of action 
be thought out and followed closely. The lawyer must carefully 
plan his case; the instructor must plan the work of a course of 
study and develop its parts from day to day ; the farmer must plan 
the rotation of crops and the care and culture of a particular crop. 
This same policy as to a plan must be followed by students in high 
school. Certain fundamental principles govern one's abiUty to 
study and learn. These must be mastered before one can reach 
efficiency in acquiring an education. The first principle of learning 
that one should master is that of : 
A. Understanding: 



124 Supervised Sttidy 

1. Be sure that you understand. Be honest with yourself and 
try to discriminate between what you think you know and what 
you are sure you do not know. This attitude will be of great value 
to you in your endeavor to learn. Haziness of understanding 
leads to guessing and a lack of mental insight. 

2. Life demands that people who have formed habits of accuracy 
do the world's work. It is disastrous to think that your efforts 
are scholarly or of much value simply because you have the right 
principle in solving a problem. Inaccuracy in any profession or 
position is fatal. The best colleges and universities are eliminat- 
ing from their student body those who cannot think with accuracy. 

The second step in studying is : 

B. Systematizing: 

I. In studying a lesson, systematize the material in the lesson. 
Endeavor to see the important things and their relation with one 
another as well as with that part of the subject which you have 
previously studied. If you can do this, you will have taken an 
important step toward efficiency in learning. 

The third step is : 

C. Associating: 

I. Try to associate the new materials acquired with other matter 
of a similar kind. This will enrich your knowledge and give you 
such a grip on it that it will stay with you and be of real value to you. 

The fourth principle is : 

D. Remembering: 

I. Your memories cannot be cultivated, but your ability to 
remember depends entirely on the way you learn. If you under- 
stand what you stufly, if you associate the new things learned with 
other knowledge of a similar nature and see their relations, if you 
systemize your daily work and play and also the subject matter of 
each lesson, you will then remember. Memory is of great impor- 
tance. The world of affairs demands men who can both think and 
remember. 



The Organization of Supervised Study 125 

In order to become master of the above principles, Le, under- 
standing, systematizing, associating, and remembering, the follow- 
ing suggestions may be helpful to you : 

a. Be sure you understand the directions of your teachers and 
then follow them. 

6. In stud)dng many of your lessons, such as history or English, 
it is well first to read the lesson over as a whole to get a bird's-eye 
view, then study it in detail. 

c. Put your attention on your work and be sure you understand 
it. Concentrate on the matter at hand. Try to discover the main 
points of the lesson and express them in your own words. 

d. Talk over your lessons at home. This will aid your imder- 
standing and memory of them greatly. 

e. Have you a definite place to study and where there are not 
distracting influences? 

/. Keep your study room well ventilated. 

g. Keep windows of your sleeping room open. 

h. Have a definite time to study. Study regularly a certain 
portion of the time each day and get some wholesome recreation 
each day. 

i. Do not "dilly-dally." When you study, make a serious busi- 
ness of it. Work hard while at it and train yourself to study rapidly 
and with accuracy. The hardest and fastest workers are the 
most accurate. 

j. Review often. Do not wait for your teachers to give you re- 
view lessons or a systematic review of a subject. Whenever you 
find that you do not understand a lesson because of haziness of 
knowledge previously gained, make an independent review of your 
own of the course. 

k. Use all aids available. Ask questions of your teachers con- 
cerning things you do not know. Remain after school hours to 
get aid in your work. Consult reference books, magazines, pictures, 
diagrams, laboratory apparatus, and any other aids you may be 
able to appropriate. 



/ 



126 Supervised Study 

What has been attempted by the educators dted and also 
by others is within the reach of every principal and every 
teacher. May it not be true that if teachers dealt more 
with studying than with reciting the pupils would respond 
with more alacrity? If teachers showed an intelligent inter- 
est in correct and economical methods of work, it is not 
imlikely that the pupils would regard studying with more 
earnestness. 

General Summary 

The foregoing general methods of supervised study, with 
the exception of the Assembly Study Hall, may prove very 
effective as corrective agencies when high school pupils find 
studying xmsuccessful. The main criticism to be oflEered 
against them is that they are chiefly, if not exclusively, 
corrective. They do not allow for any definite or prolonged 
instruction in how to study each assignment. Probably, in 
the great lack of teachers who can teach pupils this important 
branch of school life, it is better to seek for the expert and 
give him or her the task of supervising studying. The pres- 
ence of such an expert indicates that the school authorities 
sense the problem and are attempting to find a solution in the 
most effective manner. It remains true, however, that every 
teacher must become a study expert, with all that this means. 



i 



CHAPTER VI 

THE ORGANIZATION OF SUPERVISED STUDY 

{Continued) 

The Importance of Specific Direction in Study. In the 
preceding chapter discussion was limited to schemes of 
supervised study that make no attempt to give formal in- 
struction in study but aim to help the pupil to overcome 
difficulties in preparing lessons. It was pointed out that these 
plans are chiefly corrective or only generally directive. The 
highly trained study coach, to be sure, is in a position to 
diagnose " cases " and suggest methods of dealing with such 
pupils in the regular class work. The schemes, however, fail 
to take into accoimt the fundamental need of so revising 
present classroom procedure that considerable time may be 
devoted in every subject to training in and supervision of 
study. The methods to be considered in this chapter are 
organized with this purpose in view. Teachers using these 
methods spend much time in individual instruction. Home 
study is minimized and in some schools wholly eliminated 
under these types of study administration. The school work 
stresses study rather than reciting. These plans will now be 
discussed in detail. 

II. Subject Organizations 

These include various forms of divided periods, study periods, 

and occasional supervision. 

127 



128 Supervised Study 

I. Divided Periods. These are modifications or elaborations 
of the early Batavia plan evolved by Superintendent John 
Kennedy in the town of Batavia, N.Y. The origin of the 
plan was the usually overcrowded schoolroom, in this case 
of over sixty pupils in an elementary grade. To relieve the 
teacher of this crowded room, Mr. Kennedy put in an addi- 
tional teacher. The additional teacher. Miss Lucie Hamilton, 
was not an assistant but an associate teacher with a specific 
type of work to perform. The pupils in the class who for 
various reasons were retarded were given in her charge. Her 
work was similar to that of the imassigned teacher, only here 
she was a regular teacher in this room and her efforts were 
confined to the pupils of this particular grade. The result 
of this work far surpassed expectations. Retarded, in- 
different, restless children awoke. Their attitude toward 
the class and the teachers became enthusiastic. Similar 
results were obtained by adding teachers to other rooms. 

After the plan had been in operation for a year, it occurred 
to the superintendent that the fimdamental reason for improve- 
ment lay not in having two teachers but in employing two 
wholly different methods of teaching. Class instruction 
supplemented by individual instruction was really the secret 
of the great change. It seemed worth while to try another 
method, — namely, dividing one teacher's time between the 
usual recitation and supervised study in the same period. 
It met with success in two grade rooms and in rooms with 
many grades. 

The Batavia, or Divided Class Period, plan has been in- 
troduced into many high schools with success equal to that 
at Batavia. It means, essentially, the abandoning of the 
usual " question and answer " type of recitation and stressing 



?^ 



The Organization of Supervised Study 129 

co(q>erative assignments, the teacher working with the pupils, 
fMt for them, in the preparation of the new lesson. Several 
forms of the divided period have been developed. These 
will now be considered. 

a. The Newark Plan. Principal William Wiener, at 
Newark, N.J., has foimd that the divided period is far supe- 
rior to the traditional type of class period. At first he divided 
a sixty-minute period equally, devoting the same amoimt of 
time to recitation and to study, with five minutes between 
periods for transit to and from classes. In the chapter on 
" Results of Supervised Study " are given some tables illustrat- 
ing the benefits of this type of study supervision at Newark. 
The length of the period has been reduced by Mr. Wiener so 
that now twenty-five minute halves are in vogue in each period. 
Each teacher using the method provides for suitable instruc- 
tion in how to prepare the assignment just given. Home 
study is .minimized or wholly eliminated, the additional 
amoimt of study necessary being provided for during the 
vacant periods. Under this plan the school day is broken up 
into fixed recitation and fixed supervised-study periods, each 
beginning and ending by bell signals. 

b. The Columbia Plan. This is somewhat diflferent in 
being more flexible and in allowing as a rule more time for 
study than for recitation. Dr. J. L. Merriam, principal of 
the University High School at Columbia, Mo., believes in 
stimulating interest and effort by abandoning the usual form 
of instruction where pupils are assigned certain seats and 
are expected to remain seated for the greater part of the period. 
The high school pupils in this school are given imusual 
privileges. The classroom resembles more nearly a small 
reading room than a recitation hall. Pupils while at work 

K 



i 



130 Supervised Study 

may pass back and forth as they find it necessary to consult 
reference books or other material. The recitation room is 
essentially a workshop where teacher cooperates with the 
pupil, where pupils are constantly supervised while engaged 
in studying. About one third of the period is devoted to 
recitation proper, but this amoimt of time is flexible. 

Dr. Merriam conceives of the class period in every subject 
as essentially a laboratory hour, — not a reiteration or memory 
exhibition. The important thing is to arouse pupils to work 
constructively and economically. In a class where pupils 
realize that marks and promotion depend upon evidence of 
individual effort, day after day, rather than upon occasional 
opportunities to answer questions or work frequently not 
the pupil's own achievement, it is likely that study will be 
regarded as an end in itself — the very act or effort of work- . 
ing will be deemed as important as the finished recitation. 

(i) The Organization of Columbia Plan. Teachers in the 
University High School are given a list of Directions to 
Teachers containing helpful and definite guidance in the 
supervision of study. The following extracts illustrate the 
excellence of the directions : ^ 

Purpose in these Directions 

I. To make the class hour and individual work more effective 
by more definitely differentiating between recitation, class study, 
assignment, and home study. We easily drift into habits of loose- 
ness which seriously affect results. I wish this avoided as much as 
possible. 

* Dr. Merriam very kindly sent the author a copy of his "Directions,** with 
permission to make copious citations. Dr. Merriam is planning to publish a 
Manual of Supervision which will contain the directions in complete form. 



The Organization of Supervised Study 131 

2. To raise the standard of the work : 

i) By making the recitation more sharp and positive (but bear in 
mind that this portion of the class hour should be more and more 
reduced). 

2) By making the class study an exercise more helpful in teach- 
ing students how to attack a new problem. 

3) By making the assignment more definite, as an outgrowth of 
class study. 

4) By obUging the student to feel greater responsibility in his 
individual work. 

DIVISIONS OF THE CLASS HOUR 

1. Recitation 8.10 to 8.30 (or earUer) 

2. Class study 8.30 (or earher) to 8.55 

3. Assignment 8.55 to 9.00 

3. In many cases the recitation time can be shortened, as I 
wish "class study** emphasized. Time needed for assignment will 
vary; sometimes more, sometimes less. Sometimes assignment is 
so readily inferred from the class study that no formal assignment 
is at all necessary. • 

In another section of his " Directions," Merriam adds the 
following " Note of Importance " : 

The recitation here proposed is only a compromise. Eventually, 
no recitation^ as such, is needed.^ Above all things, teachers must 
beware of directing class study or home work as a preparation for 
recitation. The traditional recitation cannot be dropped from the 
high school as abruptly as has been done in the University Elemen- 
tary School. But until this is possible the recitation portion of the 
class hour must be made more elGEective than at present prevails. 

Under the head. Nature of Class Study, are a group of 
directions that can hardly be surpassed. The following ex- 
tract is in full : 

^ Italics not used in the original. 



/ 



132 Supervised Sttuly 

t 

NATURE OF CLASS STUDY ' 

1. Class Study is the opeiung of the study of a specific topic or 
problem. 

2. This class study is under the direction of the teacher who has 
previously studied out such topics for the purpose of helping others 
to study it. Such preparation is quite dilGEerent from that of a 
student. Method of sttidy is the chief problem of the teacher in her 
preparation. The teacher should be constantly directed by the 
question. "What do I wish my students to do in studying this 
topic?" 

3. Such class-study is usually upon the basis of certain facts or 
data previously collected by the students. For example : 

i) In English Uterature: Students have read certain pages, 
chapters, or selections ; they are fairly famiUar with the story, the 
facts or the plot. 

2) In history: Students have read in the texts or reference 
books material bearing upon a given topic, e.g, ; the causes of the 
American Revolution. They are in possession of the more impor- 
tant facts. 

3) In botany : Students have collected certain plant forms from 
laboratory cases or from the fields. This material is before them 
for study. 

4. This class-study may well be opened by the teacher — or 
students stating a problem or the problem, for the study of 
which these facts or data collected contribute much. (In this 
connection keep in mind the note given at the close of this 
section.) 

5. Study and recitation are to be carefully distinguished. For 
example : Sight translation in a foreign language is not study, but 
looking for probable or possible subjects and predicaties, finding 
difficult or pecuUar constructions, etc., is study. Guessing at 
interpretations in literature and history is not study, but reasoning 
about the data at hand is study. 



The Organization of Supervised Study 133 

6. The library and laboratory method of work is the method of 
"class study." Open books are needed. Notes may advisedly 
be made even in the books (i,e,, the students' books). The 
student-teacher is reminded of the eight "factors in study," dis- 
cussed by McMurry in his book How to Sttidy, But one's class 
work must not be too closely directed by those eight factors. 
Study is essentially the working out of those means that lead to the 
accompUshment of one's purposes. 

Note of Importance. Much of what is presented in this section 
as class-study is due to the ciuriculum which tradition has given 
us. The problems of purpose in this class-study are largely mapped 
out for us by the subject chosen and the text used. For example, 
how reasonable was the attitude of the colonists toward " taxation 
without representation." This interesting problem is discussed in 
class because the facts involved are met in a given text used in a 
specified course of study. Contrast this with reading current 
literature on Woman's Suffrage. In the latter case, the problem 
presents itself to us in the course of normal life : reading and study 
is pursued as a means of helping us solve the problem. In the 
former case, the reading material is presented to us — a problem 
for study is formulated to suit the data before us. Until our high 
school course of study is changed to a study of contemporary life, 
our purposes or problems in class-study must be largely determined 
by the subject-matter which tradition has given us. Thus much 
of the class-study proposed above is a compromise. 

2. The Double Period. The inception and development 
of this unique plan are due to Dr. J. Stanley Brown, principal 
of the High School at Joliet, 111. It will be an advantage to 
read Dr. Brown's description of it : ^ 

a. The inception of this plan in our own school did not grow out 
of the experience in any other school or from any other plan. Only 

* School and Home Education ^ February, 1915. 



i 



I 



134 Supervised Study 

four or five years ago did we begin to make a careful tabulation of 
the percentage of failure in each subject each semester, and I am 
sure that it was due to the fact that this percentage seemed to us 
entirely too high that the experiment, which we began to carry on 
three or four years ago, had its origin. The experiment was tried 
first with the mathematics class in algebra because the failure 
seemed to be greatest in that place. It was extended then to 
geometry and seemed to produce better results than the preceding 
plan in that subject. It has now been extended so as to include 
practically » all of the mathematics of the first two years, all of the 
foreign language, Latin, French, and German, of the first year, all 
of the EngUsh of the first year, all of the Science of all the years 
including the domestic science and manual training. Our proce- 
dure from one subject to another and from one year's work to an- 
other has been a gradual one and has been made only when the facts 
set forth at the close of each semester seem to justify such extension 
of work. 

In general, our double period scheme, as we call it, means that 
the first period of the two, each 40 minutes long, is spent in the 
conduct of the recitation; the second period is spent in directed 
study with whatever assistance may be found necessary, according 
to the need developed either during the preceding recitation or the 
examination of the lesson for the following day. The double period 
plan has been introduced this year for the first time in all of the 
first year EngUsh classes. The amount of the teacher's work, under 
the new plan, is not greater than under the old plan, but the effec- 
tiveness of the work is its main point of defense. 

The interrogation which is made always by the people who visit 
these classes to find out what this sort of study means is : "Don't 
you find that pupils are given so much help that they are weak in 
the succeeding work and that you direct them so much that they 
lose their initiative?" This is a very natural inquiry and of our 
faculty of sixty-six we have two people who are inclined to think 
there is reason for these questions. At the same time, both of these 



The Organization of Supervised Study 135 

people axe unwilling to accept a single period of recitation and have 
their work compared with the work of another teacher who has a 
double period. We are ready to answer both of these questions in 
defense of the scheme because we have carried on this scheme long 
enough to see what pupils do in their succeeding work. My own 
observation leads me to say that the number of teachers I have 
fovmd in any high school giving too much help is far smaller than 
the number giving too Uttle. 

This scheme cannot be carried on successfully where the school 
is too small to justify the employment of ten or a dozen teachers. 
It cannot be carried on successfully imless the conditions necessary 
for its success are provided before its operation begins. The ele- 
ment of specialization enters quite largely into the scheme ; hence, 
the larger organization with the larger number of students and the 
larger number of teachers favors the working of the scheme. The 
scheme will probably fail if adopted in schools with a small number 
of teachers having to teach three or four different subjects during 
the day. The Ubrary scheme in history will fail where there is not 
a well equipped Ubrary. The laboratory scheme will fail where the 
apparatus is not sufl&cient in quantity to enable individual work. 
The double period scheme will fail where teachers are unwilling to 
carry out faithfully and accurately the plan for its operation. It is 
likely to find opposition on the part of all teachers, men and women, 
especially women, who are opposed to the lengthening of the school 
day. Even though that does not provide a larger number of classes, 
it is sometimes charged against this scheme that the continued effort 
at keeping students keyed up and alert for a long period of time will 
make them stale for the last part of the day. This would have 
some defense in it were it not for the fact that gymnasium exercises 
are daily required of all pupils in the first year and that the freshen- 
ing and recreative resultant of passing from one building to another 
a block away seem sufficient, not only to prevent staleness and 
drowsiness, but to insure continued alertness on the part of the 
students. This scheme is, like all other schemes, dependent largely 



i 



136 Supervised Study 

on the sjmoipathetic and enthusiastic attitude of the teacher for its 
success. This scheme proposes aboUshing home study largely, if 
not entirely, and confines study to the school building where the 
Ubrary is, where the laboratories are, where the manual training 
and domestic science equipment is, and above all, where the teachers 
are. Our observation and investigation leads us to the beUef that 
a great part of the sorcalled home study is time ill spent, when we 
consider the small return for the large amovmt of time. The teacher 
has no real evidence that the theme written at home is the real 
effort of the pupil, or that the prose composition in foreign lan- 
guage when prepared at home is the real effort of the pupil. Work 
done imder the eye of the teacher, imder the direction and supervi- 
sion of the teacher, inculcates a kind of personal honesty which it is 
difficult to inculcate outside of such supervision. 

The time ought never to come in this country when the individ- 
ual should be styled a teacher if he thinks that his f imction as such 
has been properly performed after he has assigned a lesson and 
heard the boy recite it. This dwarfed, shrivelled, and mediaeval 
type of teacher ought to be assigned to a work dealing with inert, 
non-sentient material, but not with human, Uving, pulsating, grow- 
ing life. Supervised study reaches its greatest defense in a 
teacher in whom the quaUties of sympathy and interest, inspiration 
and magnetism and human uplift are dominant. 

The enrollment of the Joliet High School is nearly 2000. 
With nearly seventy teachers it is possible to achieve well- 
nigh marvelous results. Mr. Brown believes in shifting the 
outlet of school costs from the far to the near end, in spending 
money to prevent repeaters and retards rather than to improv- 
ing abnormal cases. He says : 

" This plan means a larger number of teachers to operate it. Our 
scheme means five teachers where, vmder the older plan of proce- 
dure, we had four. We have estimated, however, that the percent- 



The Organization of Supervised Study 137 

age of repeaters, under the old plan, has been sufficiently reduced 
by the new to meet the financial difference in the cost between the 
two plans of operation. 

" In all of the modem language classes in which the direct method 
is used, there is no very great difference between the use which the 
teacher makes of the first period, but the modem language teachers 
are a unit in the opinion that this double period scheme justifies 
itself in the fact that almost no work outside of the school building 
is necessary on the part of the pupil. The percentage of failures 
in modem language has been very largely reduced. The consequent 
saving in teaching force, due to less numbers of repeaters, is 
apparent. 

" The use of this double period in first year Latin is defended by 
all the teachers of this subject on the ground that an uninterrupted 
effort for two periods, with but a trifle of a break of three minutes 
between, enables them to so connect up the work of one day with 
that of another day that the pupil accompUshes more during this 
practically continuous effort for two periods, vmder direction, than he 
could accompUsh with three or four disconnected periods without 
direction. In this subject, also, the percentage of failures has been 
largely decreased and the consequent number of repeaters decreased. 

" In beginning algebra, which is offered in the first year of our 
school, our percentage of failures before the introduction of this 
scheme was sometimes as high as thirty. Since the introduction of 
this scheme, which in the case of algebra has been continued longer 
than in any other subject, the percentage of failure has been reduced 
about fifty per cent. The same deduction may be made here with 
reference to the nimiber of repeaters as was made above. The 
directed study in the case of algebra is very different from that of 
either beginning Latin or beginning German or French. The 
opportunity to help, legitimately and immediately, when the pupil 
has made an honest, faithful effort, means much more for the pupils' 
progress and interest in the subject than if such suggestion or help 
is postponed for twenty-four hours or vmtil the pupil comes into 




138 Supervised SPudy 

the class the next day. The element of encouragement and interest 
in the subject tends to grow in the right direction if help is admin- 
istered immediately when needed. 

" The subject of geometry is not approached in precisely the same 
way as the subject of algebra and necessarily differs greatly from 
the Unguistic studies. It must be largely freed from the memoriter 
kind of work and must be given time for the young minds to reason 
slowly and in logical steps. After the first period of recitation the 
teacher has had an opportunity to know who needs assistance and 
where that assistance must come, and in the discussion and direction 
of the work for the following day he has an opportunity to make 
immediate use of all of the developments of the recitation which has 
just closed. This is another case of " striking while the iron is hot " 
and not giving it twenty-four hours to cool before it is struck again. 

" The double period in all of the classes of the science work differs 
from all the other classes because they spend four days of the week 
in the laboratory in the performance of experiments, only a single 
day of the week being given to formal recitation. The fact that 
the double period is set aside every day for this science work and 
the fact that the teacher has the opportunity to plan the work on 
this basis, seems to the science teacher a very much better plan 
than any that has been yet tried. In all the first year science it is 
not found necessary for the pupils to spend more time than is pro- 
vided in two periods. The direction of their work and the close 
supervision of the teacher makes it possible to accompUsh, during 
these two periods, what was with difficulty accompUshed in a single 
period of recitation followed by vmdirected work in two periods 
outside the laboratory. 

" The history department is using a scheme somewhat different 
from all the rest because a single period of recitation is followed by 
directed work in the library. The history department feels, at the 
beginning of this experiment, that the abiUty to use the library 
effectively is one of the greatest aids to all history work, and that, if 
power is developed during the earUer years of the high school 



The Organization of Supervised Study 139 

course, it may be utilized with great advantage in all succeeding 
work. We are not ready to pronounce upon this plan, because this 
experiment is yet in the trial stage. It finds its defenders, however, 
in every member of the history department and in the pupils 
because it is rarely necessary to spend much time outside of the 
school building." 

The plan in English is somewhat different. One of the 
teachers in this department describes her method in the 
following words : 

" The second period is used primarily for supervised study. If 
the work is very difficult or if a great deal of explanation and instruc- 
tion is necessary, a part of this time is used for recitation. Since 
the second period is intended to be used for study vmder the direct 
supervision of the class teacher, it does not seem wise nor fair to 
spend too much of this time in recitation. 

" The lesson for the following day is assigned at the beginning of 
the second period. The period is used for the study of that lesson. 
I help the class in various ways, but I take great care in determining 
the amount and the kind of help I give. I have in mind that the 
pupil is to be taught to study and to be independent in his work. 
A legitimate number of questions are answered and difficult pas- 
sages in the test are explained. I refuse to pronounce, spell or define 
words. The child is sent to the dictionary. If he does not under- 
stand the explanation, I assist him. When themes are assigned, 
the first draft of the composition is written during the second period. 
Often the pupils correct and re-write the themes that I have cor- 
rected and returned to them. While this is being done, I spend 
some of the time giving individual help to those who do not under- 
stand the principles of composition and to those who have difficulty 
in correcting their work." 

So far as the writer has been able to learn the double period 
is used only in Joliet, 111. With the advantages claimed for it 



I40 Supervised Study 

by a principal with the long experience and thoroughgoing 
progressive methods of Mr. Brown, it deserves adoption, 
at least experimentally, in schools large enough for such a 
schedule. Unquestionably it has proved successful in 
Joliet. The writer has visited the school, and observed the 
process of study supervision in a few of the classes. It is an 
easily defensible scheme for schools with faculties numbering 
at least fifteen. 

5. General Technic of the Divided and Double Period. The 
question is frequently asked by interested teachers: What 
do you do — how do you keep the pupils busy? Some 
teachers fear that there will be a great amoimt of time 
wasted. Others believe that there will not be sufficient time 
to complete the course of study. Others, again, think that 
the pupil will have nothing to do after school hours if most 
or all of the assignment is prepared in class or at school. It 
is necessary, therefore, to consider the general procedure of 
the divided period and to offer a few suggestions that will 
aid the teacher to begin this work with confidence and prose- 
cute it without loss of time. The more detailed procedure 
in connection with each subject is dealt with in Part 11. 

(i) The Teacher's Preparation. The first step in successful 
supervision of study deals with the teacher's organization of 
the term's work. It is essential that teachers imder any 
method of teaching have a perspective, — a map, — a de- 
tailed plan of their work. The subject must be broken up 
into large divisions, called units of instruction, — big topics 
that are the main vertebrae of the course. In American 
history, for example, these would be the periods of discovery, 
colonization. Revolution, Civil War, etc. The Table of 
Contents in the textbook provides a basis of such imits of 



The Organization of Supervised Study 141 

instruction. The course should consist of what Charles 
McMurry calls " type lessons," big movements, institu- 
tions, or industries. In commercial geography, mining, 
irrigation, cotton, canals, would be units of instruction, rather 
than rivers, erosion, climate, currents, which* are subtopics. 

Having selected these big units of instruction, the teacher 
should in the next place schedule the sub-topics, or units of 
recitaHoUy — the topics to be studied each day. Some topics 
can easily provide for this variety of length. Next comes the 
daily assignment, or unit of study. Here the teacher must 
exercise considerable judgment in making the assignment 
reasonable, — neither too short nor too long, — and also in 
weighing its parts, and giving due emphasis of explanation 
where this is most needed. If, in addition to the foregoing, the 
teacher employ a variety of Lesson Plans, or Lesson Types, as 
referred to by Strayer ^ and Earhart,^ the scheme of prepara- 
tion will be practically complete. 

The teacher's preparation, as described, can be planned in 
book form as on following page. 

The book should be large enough to include all of each 
day's recitation on the two pages as described. On the left- 
hand page is stated the big topic, or unit of instruction, 
which forms the broad backgroimd of the day's work. The 
dates — beginning and close — of the treatment of this 
topic are stated also as daily checks on the amoimt of time 
devoted to each day's work. This is followed by a statement 
of the more specific topic imder discussion. Here is the 
" local station " en route. The unit of study is smaller than 
the recitation unit, for it refers to the pupil's part of the day's 
work, or the amoimt of preparation the teacher requires him 

1 The Teaching Process. » Types of Teaching. 



142 



Supervised Study 



Sample Page from Teacher's Plan Book 



Unit of Instruction Date 

TIktit np "RKriTATinN 


DEVELOPMENT OF LESSON 
LF.ssnv TvPTT. 










Unit of Study or Assignment 














TiATV. 




Lesson Type to be used in Trkat- 










RF.PKPF.KrrR "Rnoirs 












Individual Assignments or Re- 
pop t«; 










■ 









LEFT PAGE 



RIGHT PAGE 



Figure VIII 



% 



to make on the unit of recitation which is being developed 
cooperatively by teacher and pupil. By selecting a good 
while ahead the kind of lesson type to be employed, the 
teacher will be able to find illustrations and reference material, 
much of which would lie unnoticed without some topic or 
mode of procedure drawing it into the teacher's experience. 
Reference books, including magazines, can be selected a 
long time in advance of the lesson and procured if t^ ^ teacher 



The Organization of Supervised Sttidy 143 

has her work well planned. Individual assignments with 
the name of the pupil selected for the special work should 
also be recorded. This is especially important in super- 
vised study where much of the work is by small groups or 
individuals. 

(2) The Assignment. Much has been said about the as- 
signment, but there is no danger of overstressing this vital 
part of the teacher's work. Teachers only too frequently 
ignore the second syllable of the word assignment. It is, 
or should be, a clear sign pointing the way to go and giving 
detailed directions for reaching the destination. Signs call 
attention to the imusual or to something that persons are 
stimulated to want. The assignment in school work has 
similar fimctions. It deals with something new — it must 
be made attractive enough for the pupils to want its material. 
It must state clearly what is offered or expected, where to 
get it, and how to get it. 

Supervised study is simply an elaborate assignment or a 
cooperative assignment. It can never be too specific — never 
too clear. The proof of this last statement is furnished by 
Breslich : ^ 

That in beginning classes of the high school, suggestions given 
with the lesson are not sufficient to enable the pupil to do his work, 
and that the pupil's difficulty in studying his lesson is much greater 
than is generally assumed, is illustrated by the following occurrence. 
The parents of a pupil just beginning first-year mathematics in the 
University of Chicago High School complained to the teacher that 
the daughter came home day after day with home work assigned 
but with no idea how to do it. The girl had told them it was the 

1 "Teaching High School Pupils How to Study/' School Review^ October, 1912, 
Vol. XX, pp. 505-515- 



144 Supervised Study 

teacher's custom to assign problems with no suggestions. Feeling 
that this procedure was unreasonable, the parents spent the evening 
hours working the problems and explaining them to the child. 
When they were imable themselves to do the work, they called on 
a ministerial friend living in the next block, who was good in mathe- 
matics and kind enough to help. Finally the parents came to the 
teacher and complained : '* Sometimes even all of us cannot do the 
work you assign, how do you expect her to do it alone?" The 
teacher was surprised to learn that, after all the careful preparation 
in the classroom, a pupil, no matter how slow, should not even 
know that suggestions were given. Asked whether any suggestions 
for the next day's lesson were given, the girl said she knew of none. 
To satisfy the parents, the teacher took a quarter of an hour to go 
over the preparation of the lesson with the parents and daughter 
exactly as had been done in the classroom. It was found that the 
girl remembered it all, but failed to see how it would help her to 
study her lesson. It was now the parents' turn to be surprised. 
They went away feeling that the child, not the teacher, was at 
fault. 

This experience shows that in giving out an assignment 
several things are fundamentally important. First, the limits 
of the new lesson must be clearly defined. This is not always 
done even in universities. Second, directions of study must 
be so labeled. The teacher must preface the remarks by 
•saying : " Here is the best way to prepare or to study the 
lesson for to-morrow." One dare not assume that high school 
pupils are alert every minute of the period. Clear-cut, signal 
directions are necessary, spoken in a loud (not shrill) voice, 
and plain language. Third, explanations should follow. A 
problem, if in mathematics, should be worked on the board. 
A sample of the kind of work required should be shown — 
usually best selections from other classes are excellent illustra- 




The Organization of Supervised Study 145 

tive material — and in detail the merits of the sample com- 
mented on. 

Supervised study, however, goes one step beyond the fore- 
going. Explanations may be clear. The pupil thinks that 
he can study the next lesson without any trouble. But when 
he actually finds himself so engaged, imexpected difficulties 
arise. The model example, and the explanations were clear 
enough, but how do they apply to this problem, to this section 
of the lesson? The process of association has been blocked 
for some reason. At this point it is important to supervise the 
pupil's work. This can be done during the supervised study 
period. The assignment now becomes individualized. Ex- 
planations are now made to individuals, not to the class. 
The teacher and pupil together apply the explanations al- 
ready given the class, thus starting the pupil on a right method 
of attack. 

The assignment may be of various kinds according to the 
subject. The following kinds are in use : ^ 

1. Page assignment — "take so many pages" or "take from 
page 00 to page 00." 

2. Paragraph assignment — "In the next lesson omit paragraphs 
so and so, and study especially paragraphs so and so." 

3. Topic as^gnment — "For to-morrow study (name of topic). 
References — 

4. Problem assignment — (a) Stated by teacher in form of a 
large question, or 

* Dr. Henry W. Holmes of Harvard University informs the writer that 
one of the graduate students of the Division of Education is investigating 
the most effective kind of assignment, according to the dominant mental 
processes it will -call for. It is hoped that the investigation will aid in deter- 
mining what modes of assignment bring the best results in each particular type 
of study. 

L 



/ 



146 Supervised Study 

(6) A number of questions are given out, the answers to be 
ascertained by the pupils, or 

(c) Pupils frame their own problems in connection with the 
general assignment; i.e. they discover issues, questions, crises, 
difficulties as in history or in literature — also in science. 

{d) Grouped assignments — special reports or investigations. 

The page assignment is the most difficult of all, for it assumes 
that the pupil will know how to select the important material, 
how to organize it, and how to prepare for reciting what he 
has tried to learn. It has been called an " ideal " assignment 
in the sense that pupils should be trained to work with a 
minimum amount of direction. It probably is " ideal " more in 
the sense of lying beyond the pale of high school possibility. 
Definiteness — "a goal idea " — is necessary to best work 
even in graduate departments of universities, but it is difficult 
to form such problems, such definite tasks even in the high- 
est walks of intellectual life. The high school pupil can well 
afford to spend four years in being trained to work on definite 
assignments. 

The other types of assignment referred to aim to keep the 
pupil from scattering energy and thereby producing " loose- 
jointed " recitations. The problem assignment advocated 
by John Dewey, Frank McMurry, and others gives the 
pupil a specific task or series of tasks. At first it will be neces- 
sary for the teacher to state most, if not all, of the problems in 
the new assignments. The large end in view, of course, should 
be to arouse and train the pupil's ability to discover problems 
for himself. This, however, is a well-advanced method of 
studying and comes only through careful instruction in 
organization of textbook and similar material, the pupil's 
list of questions on the assignment, and various kinds of 



% 



The Organization of Supervised Stvdy 147 

** socialized recitations " involving reports on civic or com- 
munity activities or reports on any phase of common day 
existence. 

Considerable backgroxmd is necessary for the recognition of 
problems, issues, or specific purposes. A problem is a felt 
need to reorganize past experience and to gather supple- 
mentary material in order that past and new experience 
together may answer the question raised, settle a dispute, re- 
move doubt, or satisfy any need involved. The pupil must 
see the problem, understand its meaning and the material and 
method necessary for the solution. Mere abstract, general 
assignments will not awaken personal interest in the problem. 
The pupil must feel its importance for him, its relation to his 
sphere of life. Experience in the large must become experi- 
ence individualized. This is a lofty conception of social 
efficiency; namely, that the problems of society are after 
all the individual's own problems. Assignments, therefore, 
should include this personal interest. Teachers must be 
able to assign lessons by appealing to the individual interests 
of each pupil. Concrete, real^ familiar situations should be 
used. 

The foregoing emphasis on the importance of clear, specific, 
well-motivated assignments implies that a large part of the 
teacher's time will be spent on preparing adequate material 
and method of assigning lessons. In supervised study, to 
repeat, this is of first importance. 

The question is often asked, how much time should be 
spent on the assignment? The answer ought to be obvious. 
There can be no fixed time limit. It depends on the subject, 
on the nature of the subtopic, on the readiness of the class 
for the new work. The following merely suggestive division 



148 



Supervised Study 



of time can be modified to suit local conditions. The im- 
portant thing is to give ample time for clear statement and 
illuminating explanations. 



Table XIII. — Division 


OP Recitation Pkbiods 


Whole Length or 
Period 


Recitation of Pre- 
ceding Day's 
Wore 


Assignment 


Supervised Stddy 

or ASSIGIIMEMT 


50 minutes 
40 minutes 
30 minutes 


5-10 minutes 

5 minutes 

• 5 minutes 


15-20 minutes 
15 minutes 
12 minutes 


20-25 minutes 
20 minutes 
13 minutes 



As a general principle the daily recitation should occupy 
one fifth of the time, the assignment two fifths, and supervised 
study two fifths. Most of the time should be spent on 
supervising the pupils at work. But, as already stated, 
there can be no arbitrary time limits. Conditions must 
determine the needful distribution of time. 

{a) Dr. Merriam on the Assignment. A very different 
plan of treatment is advocated by Dr. Merriam. Instead 
of preceding, the assignment follows the study period, grows 
out of the problems raised in this portion of the hour's work. 
In the " Directions " already quoted, the following sugges- 
tions direct the teacher's attention to the importance of 
specific assignments : 



Nature of Assignment 

I. The assignment normally grows out of the class study and, 
therefore, should be given at the close of the class hour. Not 
infrequently the students may well infer the assignment from the 
study done in class, and thus no assignment, in a formal way, may 
be made. 



The Organization of Supervised Study 149 

2. K assignment is made, it should be very specific. It may be 
specific and yet allow the student large opportunity for individual 
variation. Only in case the assignment is specific can the student 
be held responsible for executing it. The importance of this is 
seen in the next article (3). 

3. Teachers should impress their students with the idea that the 
eflEectiveness of the class hour depends much upon the equipment 
of the members of the class at any class exercise. (Compare note 
of importance below.) 

4. Most assignments should be remembered by the students. 
Page references and the like may be written. But in such case, 
the teacher must dictate with care and the student must write with 

« 

care. Good written form is essential. 

5. Teachers should consult students, supervisors, and principal 
frequently as to the amount of time and effort required by assign- 
ments. 

Note of Importance, Such formal assignments are not normal. 
The teacher is warned against the notion that such outside study is 
properly a preparation for class recitations. This places study 
subordinate to recitation. However, until schoolroom problems 
are more closely allied to the normal problems of contemporary 
life — as experienced by the students — the assignment discussed 
above may be used as a compromise. 

(3) Supervising the Pupils at Work, The teacher is now 
ready to imdertake the detailed supervision of the pupils 
engaged in studying the assignment explained during the 
first part of the period. In order to accomplish this effec- 
tively it is necessary to break the class up into at least three 
groups which conveniently may be called the superior, the 
average, the inferior. In the first group belong the boys 
and girls who do not seem to need any individual attention. 
They grasp the explanation of the assignment. They under- 
stand the model problem. Not only are they able to adapt 



i 



ISO Supervised Study 

the explanation to new situations quite readily, but they work 
rapidly, and, therefore, can outstrip the rest of the class. 
For these reasons it is not necessary for the teacher to devote 
much time to this group. At present most of the teacher's 
time is spent on the bright pupils ; for they are more easily 
taught, working with them is less taxing, they " advertise " 
the teacher's ability better, and in some schools are 
" fattened " for exhibition purposes. In supervised study, 
however, they are given extra work, a different kind of work. 
They are permitted to advance as rapidly as they can regard- 
less of the class and, if eventually their standing permits, ad- 
mission into another subject is their due. 

Most of the supervision will be confined to the second and 
third groups. The second group differs from the first in 
lacking readiness of imderstanding. It needs help along the 
way. Perhaps some pupils can be developed to such an 
extent that it will be advisable to promote them into the first 
group. Whenever possible this should be done. 

If the class is grouped on some scheme like the foregoing, 
it will be foimd that the third group will require most of the 
supervision. If the teacher is at all successful, this third 
group will not be large at any time. Most of the class will 
proceed with little or no help — the small third group will 
demand considerable attention for a time. 

By the foregoing arrangement there will be ample time for 
considerable study supervision every period. The class is 
not retarded by the slower members ; for, by individual or 
group assignments of greater extent but all bearing on the 
same unit of recitation, the class can move forward at the re- 
spective group rates. For example, in mathematics group 
one may imdertake a large number of originals or be excused 



The Organization of Supervised Study 151 

from the second half of the period in order to study other 
phases of the subject in the library. 

Limiting the discussion, then, to the supervision of the most 
needy group the teacher's method will be somewhat as follows. 
The pupils have begun to work. The getting ready process 
must be prompt and precise with a minimum of noise. No 
questions are permitted audibly, but by raising the hand the 
pupil indicates a desire to consult the teacher, who passes 
quietly to the pupil's desk. The pupil and teacher in whispers 
confer on the difficulty. When not so occupied, the teacher 
moves quietly up and down the aisles stopping at each desk 
to inspect each pupil's work. When she finds a pupil em- 
ploying a wrong method, she stops and in low tones asks why 
he used this method. She always requires the pupil to give 
a reason for what he does. The pupil is expected to make 
his own corrections with a minimum of suggestion from the 
teacher. When absolutely necessary to do so, she will give 
the required information. There is nothing gained under 
such drciunstances by sending the pupil on a long hunt for 
the facts. Valuable time is saved by telling him what he 
probably could not have discovered for himself. 

The tour of inspection for the third group completed, the 
rest of the time is devoted to group two and, if any time 
remains, a rapid glance over the work of the first group 
finishes the main work of the study period. 

During the inspection the teacher may employ a little 
" daybook " similar to that of the study coach already de- 
scribed. The study period will afford abundant opportunity 
for marking the pupils. These ^^ study-marks " can be supple- 
mented by the records during recitations and on examinations. 
A sample page of a book for such record is here given : 



Supervised Study 

Davbook in Supebvised Sittdy 



PUTO 


Makks 


s 


t| S R 


s 


R||S 


: 


_l_ 


sk||s.1s 


R s|r S 


R S R 


S R 


s 


























Z 




-- 





- 


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IC 


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JZ'Z 


rr 






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_. 


1 


z 




p 


- 





























































FioriE IX 

The S column refers to the studying of the assignment and 
the R to the recitation of the assignment studied the day 
before. The dates, therefore, will be successive and are 
placed beneath the respective letters, S being on the preceding 
day and R on the day after. This method of recording gives 
the teacher a double check on the pupil's ability to do the 
work. 

It is assumed throughout ibis discussion that the study 
period simply starts the pupil rightly. If the teacher knows 
that the pupil understands how to study the assignment, a 
poor recitation on the following day will be due either to 
neglect or carelessness. The pupil under supervised study 
schemes is expected to use vacant periods for additional prep- 



The Organization of Supervised Study 153 

arations. But if he has been correctly instructed in how 
to study during the divided period, it may be safely assumed 
that he will be able to study with profit when alone. 

The eflFectiveness of the work may be increased by desig- 
nating the best pupil of the class (in each subject) as assistant 
to the teacher. This pupil would then have partial charge 
of the second group. The old monitorial system of Lancaster 
and Bell is here given a more specific application. The 
assistant should receive additional credit for this work. 

The Daily Schedule of the Junior-Senior High School of 
Rochester, New. York, given on the next page, indicates very 
well the practical arrangement of the class f)eriods organized 
on the divided period basis.^ 

3. Weekly Supervised Study. This plan sets aside one hour 
every week for supervised study in each subject by the teacher 
of the respective subjects. The plan was started by F. M. 
Giles, principal of the high school at DeKalb, 111. He writes 
of the plan as follows : 

Our plan, briefly, was this : We took five minutes from each of 
the six recitation periods, which we have in our school days, and 
put these together to make a thirty-minute study period coming 
once a day. In order that each class might receive the benefit 
of this period, we arranged that the first period class use the time 
on Tuesday ; the second period class on Wednesday, and the third 
period class on Friday. The following week that the fourth, fifth, 
and sixth period classes use the period for supervised study. On 
Monday and Thursday the teacher uses this study period by having 
come to her room for individual attention such students as she 
thinks may need individual help. So much for the plan. 

In regard to the results we have found that the plan is of greatest 
advantage with the yoimger students and in the first part of a 

^ The Elementary School Journal, March, 1916, p. 329. 



d 



Supervised Study 



1 


1^ 


ii 


i- 


11 


; 




i- 


II 


M 


= 


r 


ll 


i" 


M 


r 


ii 


^1 


1 


-- 




~ 


a 

r 


If 


i' 


ll 


a 


Is 


= 


H 
f 


II 


r- 


ll 


i" 


ll 


i 


1 


= 


> 


to 


a 
1* 


It 


jjill 


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i 


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r 


if 

5" 


a 


II 


•So. 


II 


1 


si 


- 


IB 


r 


It 




It 


8 


Sis 


- 


^ 


III 


m 


if 


■EB 


i 




|1 


- 




Kas 




8 


ii 


II 






o" 


II 


1 

T 


i 


1 


-if 






i 


n 


II 


a ff 


s s 


" 2 


s a 


2 ii 


?. ^ 



The Organization of Supervised Study 155 

subject. That is, the younger students need direction in method 
of study, and all the students fiind it helpful when learning the 
method of attack upon a new subject. 

We find it necessary, of course, to keep some definite check upon 
the work of the students. This is done by setting for them certain 
concrete problems in their study. For instance, to work a certain 
number of examples ; to be ready to prove a given theorem ; to 
pick out the topic sentences in a given paragraph ; to determine the 
most important points of a certain topic in physics ; to pick out the 
leading events in a given historical topic, etc. We find the method 
works very well in mathematics, science, and history. Some 
diflficulty has been experienced in the study of an EngUsh classic, 
such as " Macbeth," in making the work of the study period 
definite. We are working at this problem. 

Besides teaching methods of study we have found one decided 
advantage of this study period is that by reason of it the teacher 
gets a considerable insight into the methods of study of the various 
students and can discover those who waste time, who have faulty 
methods of attack, etc. 

In answer to your question as to how the student works when 
away from the supervisor, I would say that in the general opinion 
of our teachers the study at such times is intermittent and the 
student is dilatory in getting to work. We find this particularly 
true of the weaker 3tudents who often spend a good portion of the 
study period in getting paper and pencils ready, and finding out 
what they are to do, etc. 

Study at home is, in most cases, carried on under adverse condi- 
tions. In many cases the student has to do his work in the living- 
room where there is general conversation to which he gives more or 
less attention. Many students have no definite time for study, but 
allow the study time to be interfered with by various household 
affairs that come up. Very often two or three students get together 
for study, and the weaker students depend too much upon the 
help of the others. 



^ 



s 



156 Supervised Sttuly 

The technic of this plan does not differ essentially from that 
of the divided period save in respect to amoiint of time 
devoted to supervised study. The whole period is devoted 
to this supervision. As explained by Mr. Giles, the teacher 
spends the period in teaching methods of working. The writer 
visited several of the classes in this school and observed 
especially the English class at work. '* Silas Mamer " was be- 
ing analyzed by the pupils, many of them at the blackboard 
making outlines, arranging hsts of characters according to 
importance, stating details of theme, plot, development, etc. 
There was no reciting in the usual sense. The pupils were 
simply working together with the teacher, very informally. 

In connection with this weekly work, Mr. Giles and his 
teachers have undertaken careful investigations of how pupils 
study. References to these investigations are made in the 
chapter on " Methods of Study." 

4. Daily-extra Period. Mr. L. I. Loveland, principal of 
the high school at Pottstown, Pa., six years ago devised 
a plan that he claims is far superior both to the divided and 
the double periods. His argument is that study cannot be 
carried on in the same atmosphere as the regular recitation 
work. There should be, says Mr. Loveland, a definite period 
set aside for teaching pupils how to study. By having this 
period wholly independent of the recitation hour there will 
be provided a proper setting for study. To meet this need 
the study period is arranged for at the end of the day. 

Two main reasons for introducing this type of supervised 
study are stated. It " tests the efficiency of the assignment 
before the pupils have gone home. If this assignment has 
met the purpose intended, the teacher can rest well, as the 
pupil can finish any work that is not complicated in the study 



The Organization of Supervised Study 157 

period without any further help. If there must be some 
home study, it is properly prepared for." 

It will be noticed that here the pupil presimiably has had 
time during a vacant period " to test the efficiency of the 
assignment " for himself. If he has had time to do this with 
aU of the assignments, there is plainly an advantage in the 
plan, although its only advantage over the divided period seems 
to lie in the greater amoimt of time available for supervised 
study. In the divided period the study atmosphere is equally 
intense. Thus the test of the assignment is immediate. 
The following second reason is more important : 

"Another and far more important feature of the plan used here 
is that we dismiss the pupils who made an average of 90 per cent 
when the study period begins. Are we not right in assuming that 
those who make good records have solved for themselves the prob- 
lem of proper study? In questioning a very enthusiastic teacher 
who is in a school where the combination method is employed, I 
found, not imexpectedly, that he was giving the major, and by far 
the major, portion of the time devoted to study to the weaker 
pupils. 'This is inevitably so,' he remarked. Now why should 
we interfere with those who are solving the problem probably far 
better for themselves than we could do for them? Self -activity 
is far more valuable to a pupil than any direction we can give. By 
this plan we attend to the cases which need a physician and do not 
hamper or weaken the well by unnecessary interference with their 
own activities. If a pupil can do for himself all that is required, 
he should be rewarded for his ability, and by shortening his day 
in the schoolroom that much we are recognizing his ability and 
devotion to his work — something we are prone to neglect. 

"In all the time we have been using this early dismissal plan for 
the pupils who are doing the work in a superior way, I have yet to 
hear a word of complaint on the part of the parents of these pupils. 



\ 



158 Supervised Study 

We can all very vividly hear the storm of protest which comes 
froiJi the parents of pupils who are not doing the work when, even 
for a day, the school routine is interrupted. Pupils who do well in 
school do not as a rule offer any serious trouble to their parents 
and there is no objection at all about having them at home early. 
They organize their time properly and no parent will find fault." * 

It will be seen that Mr. Loveland's argument has been uti- 
lized in connection with the grouping of the class as illustrated 
in the discussion on divided period. Unquestionably superior 
pupils should be given certain privileges. The privileges 
themselves may act as incentives to better work on the 
part of weak pupils. The chief objection to Mr. Loveland's 
plan lies in delaying the supervision. A minimum amoimt 
of " quiz " during the recitation period with bi-weekly tests or 
reviews would enable the teacher to emphasize study during 
the regular period. If the period were lengthened to a full 
sixty minutes, there would probably be ample time for super- 
vision. Mr. Loveland's aim is, however, as stated in a per- 
sonal letter to the writer, to stimulate wholesome self-activity. 
For this reason absolute freedom is given to only certain 
pupils. Others should be subjected to a more rigid form of 
treatment, being required to attend study periods and to 
concentrate on school work during a school day two hours 
longer than usual. Supervised study, therefore, is organized 
only for those who have shown themselves in greatest need 
of it. Two results of this type of supervised study are cited 
in another chapter. 

5. Alternate Daily Periods. By this plan every other day 
is devoted to supervised study by the teachers of the respec- 
tive subjects. In Norfolk, Va., this has been found very 

* School Review f September, 1915. 



The Organization of Supervised Study 159 

effective. It is a workable plan in any school, can be easily 
introduced, and, when adequately prepared for, saves time. 

6. Plans in Richmond, Va. Superintendent E. E. Smith 
has evolved an ingenious scheme of study supervision which is 
an elaboration of the divided and extra periods. The organ- 
ization of the system is described in full in the Appendix. 
Similar plans are in operation in the Binford and Belleview 
Jimior High schools of Richmond, Va., but the pupils in the 
last named are assigned " home rooms " where they study imder 
supervision. Two periods a day the pupils elect the teacher 
from whom they prefer supervision (all must elect some 
teacher), but the third period (after regular school hours) is 
compulsory for those who are deficient in some subject. Su- 
perintendents Chandler and Hill are convinced that the plan 
is successful. 

7. Occasional Supervision. Many schools give oppor- 
tunities for supervised study to weak or retarded pupils. 
Such assistance is deemed important only when needs are 
great. The objection elsewhere stated — namely, that pre- 
vention is better than cure — applies here. Supervised 
study is just as much a part of the program of studies as any 
course. How to study is something to be taught before and 
while the pupil works. It should not be delayed imtil the 
pupil has been crippled. Teach him how to walk, how to 
avoid danger, how to be cautious, thoughtful, rational. This 
type of school instruction reduces retardation. 

General Summary 

The foregoing discussions of general and subject schemes of 
supervised study have aimed to reflect not theoretical plans, 
but plans in actual operation. School people are facing the 



i6o Supervised Study 

need of reformed instruction. The exact and best way of 
meeting new demands must be determined by conditions in 
each school. In the preceding pages the divided period has 
received special attention because it seems to be the most 
easily adjustable and the most logical of all the methods. It 
implies what many teachers at present hesitate to indorse, 
a shorter " quiz " or recitation period. It is feared that 
doing away with reciting will foster neglect and slipshod 
work. On the other hand, if the -pupil realizes that he is 
being marked on what he does while studying as well as on 
how he recites, this objection is overcome. 

It should be said in conclusion that any scheme which 
definitely and systematically teaches pupils the mechanics of 
doing the next day's work must shortly become an integral 
part of every school in the United States. The best method 
perhaps has not yet been devised. Experiments are going 
on ; they must be multiplied. Discussions in periodical and 
book form should increase, — all these efforts aiming to quicken 
attention and excite active constructive interest in a new type 
of teaching and a new form of class management. 



% 



CHAPTER Vn 



METHODS OF STUDYING 



In the preceding chapters there have been discussed some 
of the fundamental phases of the organization of supervised 
study. It is now necessary to consider the contents of super- 
vised study ; i.e. the subject matter, what is taught as factors 
in this plan of instruction. For supervised study is not merely 
a method ; it is also a subject with certain topics that need 
elaboration, distinct from the courses of the curriculiun. In 
other words, the supervised study period in every subject 
must deal with the mechanics of learning. There are right 
ways of working and there are wrong methods. In the high 
school it is just as important to teach the pupil correct methods 
of work as it is to teach him the fundamentals in each course. 
It is also important for teachers to know something of the 
methods of study employed by their pupils. Such informa- 
tion would furnish an excellent background for instruction 
in study methods. Before considering in any detail the 
various topics that should be stressed in a course on how to 
study, it will be interesting to consider a few of the investiga- 
tions bearing on the high school pupils' methods of work. 

I. Investigations of the Study of High School Pupils 

A. Time of Day preferred for Studying. In 1899 N. C. 

Johnson, in a Questionnaire on Methods of Study of High 

M 161 



/ 



l62 



Supervised Study 



School Pupils,* gleaned the following information, stated in 
tabular form : 



Table XIV. — Time of Day preferred for Study 







1 


i 


S 


4 


Total 


Early 




43 
13 

4 
48 

24 

17 

5 

4 

II 

4 

I 


7 

3 

I 

17 
6 

3 
2 

2 

I 


IS 
8 

4 
22 

7 
2 

I 

3 

I 


19 

I 

5 

3 
2 

4 
2 

2 

2 

4 
2 


84 


7-8 A.M. 




25 


8-9 


• 


14 


9^10 




90 


lO-II 




39 


11-12 




22 


2-3 P.M. 




II 


3-4 




8 


7-8 




14 


8-9 




9 


9-10 




7 


lO-II 




2 









The numerals on the top line refer to the high school years. 
By an oversight the second year (sophomores) in one high 
school was omitted, which accounts for the small niunber under 
this head. The table shows that the hour before breakfast 
and the first hour in school, from 9 to 10 a.m., are preferred. 
274 pupils prefer the forenoon as against 51 preferring the 
afternoon or evening. Very few choose the late hours. 

Different results, however, were obtained by F. M. Giles 
in a similar investigation confined to his own school. 

1 Op. dt., pp. 257-277. 



% 



Methods of Studying 



163 



Table XV.— 


-Time of Day fsefessed for Stxtdy (Giles) 




FOXTRTH 

Year 


Thtrd 
Year 


Second 
Year 


First Year 




Morning .... 
Afternoon .... 
Evening .... 


I 


23 


6 
2 

57 


2 

3 
55 


6 

8 

56 


15 

13 
191 



Table XV, based on replies from 26 fourth-year, 68 third- 
year, 85 second-year, and 79 first-year pupils,^ shows that 75 per 
cent of all the pupils use the evening for studying. 

There may be some significance in the choice of the words 
" prefer " and " use " as employed by these principals. Per- 
haps the pupils in DeKalb did not prefer the evening hours, 
but for one reason or another were rather forced to study at 
that time. Under prevailing conditions it may be generally 
true (extensive investigations are wanting) that high school 
pupils do not find much opportxmity for study before school 
opens in the morning. Under a modified system of home 
study it is conceivable that an hour or less at home would 
prove sufficient preparation of the next day's lesson. 

B. Studying Alone. Johnson found that 272 pupils pre- 
ferred to study alone, and Giles that 235, 91 per cent, did not 
like to study with any one else. The following parallel outline 
shows the results : 

Table XVI. — Preference in Studying Alone 



Johnson 
GUes . 



Fourth 
Year 



48 
25 



Third 
Year 



60 
64 



Second 
Year 



37 
78 



First Year 



127 
68 



272 
235 



^School Review f 19 12. 



/ 



I 



164 Supervised Study 

C. Amount of Time spent in Studying. Various studies 
have been made in this field. Giles gives the following tables 
for his school. It will be noted that the second-year pupils 
study less than the others. Giles reminds us of the fact that 
this is the year of greatest elimination, and hints that there 
might be a connection between these two facts. 

In a recent study Dr. W. H. Heck ^ reports from his investi- 
gation of thirteen high schools in Virginia that the pupils in 
these schools average one hour and twenty-two minutes a day 
in study at school, one hour and fifty-seven minutes a day 
in study at home, and three hours and nineteen minutes a 
day in study at school and at home. 

The author, in a similar investigation in Illinois in 19 14 
of 3252 pupils, found results quite similar. About 25 per 
cent of the pupils in seven high schools spent one half to a 
whole hour a day at home studying ; about 35 per cent from 
one to two hours; 15 per cent from two to three and a half 
hours. The largest per cent lies in the one to two hour group, 
thus being in general agreement with Heck's results. Giles, 
in his study, found that about 33 per cent of his pupils studied 
thirty minutes or less at a time ; about 40 per cent devoted 
one hour to study at a time; and about 23 per cent spent 
longer than an hour at a time studying. 

The foregoing investigations, hardly numerous enough for 
any final conclusions, indicate at least the trend of study 
habits among high school pupils. In the program of super- 
vised study, however, the amount of time spent is less impor- 
tant than where the student does his studying. The former 
must vary and is significant only in the way the time is 
actually used; but the living-room, for example, suggests 

^School Review, Vol. XXIII, No. 9, Noveniber, 1915, pp. 577-606. 



Methods of Studying 



i6s 



Table XVn. — Amount of Time spent in Studying 



Fourth Year 


Third Year 


Subject 


No. 


Average 


Subject 


No. 


Average 


English .... 


23 


37.1 m. 


English .... 


64 


40.4 m. 


Chemistry . . . 


19 


51.0 


German .... 


48 


39-5 


History .... 


18 


46.6 


History .... 


51 


40.7 


Domestic science . 


5 


25.0 


Physics .... 


25 


44.2 


German .... 


IS 


43.6 


Com. geography . 


3 


26.6 


Agriculture . . . 


3 


30-0 


Chemistry . . . 


II 


47.7 


Review math. . . 


I 


45.0 


Agriculture . . . 


5 


40.0 


Economics . . . 


5 


33-0 


Geometry . . . 


7 


36.4 


Physics . . N. . 


I 


45.0 


Cooking .... 


7 


27.1 


Business English . 


I 


30.0 


Latin .... 
Economics . . . 
Stenography . . 

General average 


II 

7 

I 


390 
41.4 

35.0 


General average 




38.6 m. 




38.2 m. 


Second Year 


First Year 


Subject 


No. 


Average 


Subject 


No. 


Average 


German .... 


55 


39-1 m. 


Arithmetic . . . 


19 


37-8 m. 


Geometry . . . 


43 


51.7 


Algebra .... 


57 


39.7 


History .... 


55 


50.5 


English .... 


64 


36.6 


English .... 


7 


40.9 


Latin .... 


29 


43-6 


Sewing .... 


2 


37.0 


Physiology . . . 


36 


48.4 


Agriculture . . . 


13 


43-4 


Science .... 


10 


27.0 


Algebra .... 


10 


32.0 


Bookkeeping . . 


6 


47.5 


Latin 


39 


44.6 


Cooking .... 


5 


43.0 


Com. geography 


II 


36.3 


Sewing .... 


2 


37.0 


Arithmetic . . . 


II 


30.0 








Business English . 


13 


38.0 








Physics .... 


2 


37.0 








Stenography . . 


4 


37-5 








Ccx>king .... 


6 


25.8 


General Average 






General Average 




31-7 ni- 




40.0 m. 



1 66 Supervised Sttidy 

innumerable distractions, poor Kght, bad posture — in a word, 
conditions hardly adequate for the finest expression of intellec- 
tual ability. 

II. Methods of Work 

The teacher who aims to teach pupils the meaning and the 
methods of studying will need to deal with the following topics : 
The Use of the Textbook, Underscoring, Summarizing, Out- 
lining, Notebooks, Reports and Supplementary Reading; 
Reference Books, including Dictionaries and Encyclopedias 
and Magazines. These are the main wheels and shafts of the 
mechanics of studying. They will now be treated in detail. 

I. The Use of the Textbook. The attitude that regards 
a book simply as an ornament, a form of craftsman's art, has 
no place in the study room of the high school pupil. To him 
a book must be a tool whose peculiarities and possibilities are 
known and constantly developed. Doubtless there is too 
much textbook work in the average school, but however 
methods of teaching may change, there will always be room for 
a good text — in fact, it is difficult to see how teaching could 
achieve results without some ready summary of subject matter. 
This does not mean that the text ought to be the chief source 
of information. But because it is likely to remain one of the 
necessary means of education, it is important that the pupil 
imderstand how to use his book while studying. 

a. Underscoring, Underscoring is a means of hitching or 
anchoring what the pupil has found to be the important 
sentence or topic in a paragraph. In some texts tlus sentence 
is printed in italics, but in many others the pupil himself must 
ascertain the topic sentence, the leading thought of the para- 
graph. By drawing a horizontal line beneath the sentence the 
pupil sees the main point " reliefed.'' It stands out from the 



Methods of Studying 167 

rest of the words and on rereading is easily apprehended. 
Sometimes the topic sentence is not so compact. It contains 
many relatively unimportant modifiers which can well be 
omitted in selecting the controlling sentence. For this reason 
it becomes necessary to make a Z type of underscoring, the 
leading words of the chief thought being combined by a 
continuous line that follows a zigzag path. 

Although the textbook is to be treated as a tool, this must 
not mean careless and ugly imderscoring. If in the manual 
training department it is important to keep the tools sharp and 
clean so as to achieve a fine cabinet or a perfect chair, it is no 
less imperative that pupils take care of their study tools in 
other subjects. Neatness should characteriize the pupil's 
work in all branches of his studying. Neatness, orderliness, 
clearness, are closely related to good studying. This does not 
imply that one's writing must be perfect or labored, for this to 
many of us would be a fearful loss of time. What is meant 
is that underscoring should be done neatly, not with large ugly 
black lines that follow the course of a moimtain path. 

It probably is better not to use ink for underscoring. It 
often spreads, and easily blots. The main objection to the 
use of ink is, however, that it makes revision rather diflBcult. 

In schools where textbooks are free, the question arises 
whether the pupils should be allowed to deface the books by 
underscoring. If the lines are drawn lightly, yet plainly and 
with discrimination as to their niunber, they could be erased 
by the pupil at the end of the term, and thus leave the book 
in good condition for the next pupil. 

(i) Notice Signs, Some people prefer to employ a variety 
of signs, such as parentheses ( ), parallel lines | |, braces } }, 
crosses X X , or checks V V, at the beginning and end of a sen- 



i 



1 68 Supervised Study 

tence or passage that is important. This method is less de- 
facing than long lines, but in the high school it fails to set 
forth for the young pupil the master thought as boldly as is 
possible by means of the long line. One finds persons who pre- 
fer to make aniV.5. in the margin or an OBSj calling attention 
to something important in the paragraph. The chief objection 
to this method for high school pupils is that it fails to make 
definite what is important. At the moment the important 
point is perfectly clear, but with the passing of time this im- 
portant point has become vague, the sign points to a confused 
something only. In many books it is customary to introduce 
in the text numerals as (2 : 15), calling attention to a list of ref- 
erences at the end of the chapter. In high school the pupil 
can employ this method for cross references, allowing each 
muneral to indicate a topic and after it the page on which this 
topic is again discussed. This is almost indispensable for eco- 
nomical work when working on a problem assignment. It is 
customary in Bible Training Schools to employ such methods 
as the foregoing for ready reference purposes. Bible students 
often make use of similar devices. 

Underscoring, whether by lines or by signs, cannot be done 
successftdly without considerable drill. Part of the period at 
the beginning of the term, with frequent additional periods, 
should be spent on this phase of study. It is just as important 
as the subject contents of the course. Pupils can be graded 
or marked on tins kind of work just as well as they are marked 
on the problems they are assigned to solve. 

6. Summarizing. This differs from the preceding method 
in several particulars. The summary or gist of the lesson is 
stated in the pupiFs own words. It should be a condensed 
brief or review of a paragraph or whole lesson. This implies 



Methods of Sttulying 169 

that the pupil has already discriminated between the im- 
portant and the incidental features of the paragraph. A 
summary that simply repeats with a few verbal changes the 
contents of the next lesson is not a summary — it is virtually 
a copy. Simmiarizing is difficult work. In its highest form it 
becomes a rare literary art as well as a beautiful evidence of 
clear thinking. The man who can seize upon the essentials 
of a situation, a case, a book, and report these briefly and at 
the same time clearly is valuable to society. He is likely to 
be an excellent book reviewer, an alert and prompt journalist. 
One finds in the high school, however, that this ability lies 
imdeveloped. The pupils are expected to do this kind of work, 
but seldom does the teacher take time to drill upon it. It 
forms a unit of recitation in some English courses, and when 
taught there it is tacitly assumed that the summarizing power 
will spread over into all the subjects. This, however, is a 
false assiunption. In every subject with the exception of 
those that do not call for such methods, the pupils should 
be trained to summarize the contents of the next lesson. 

(i) Means of Training Pupils to Summarize. A helpful 
means of acquiring this needful skill is to require the pupils 
to write the summary on a sheet of paper of a certain size and 
to confine the material to this one sheet. Or the summary 
must be given orally in a certain time limit. Another method 
is suggested under the topic, " Inserted Leaves," page 171. A 
significant variation from the usual type of examination 
would be to require the pupils to summarize a page in their 
textbook or in some new material, giving them a certain 
amount of time for reading the contents and a time limit for 
the summary. StiU other assignments m this type of work 
are writing book reviews of the text used in class or other 



1 70 Supervised Study 

material ; summaries of bibliographies or references assigned 
by the teacher or foimd by the pupils themselves ; prefaces to 
some long report being prepared as a group assignment or a 
preface to some imaginary book ; introductions which contain 
reviews of the course as outlined by the teacher or statements 
relative to the meaning of some large unit of recitation imder 
discussion. A still more valuable method is to require the 
pupils to write a sununary of the chapter being studied and 
later a summary of the whole book or of the whole course. 

c. The Uses of the Margin. Margins are generally included 
in printed material for aesthetic reasons as well as for the 
necessities of the printing press. Pupils in school not infre- 
quently find the margin an opportunity to develop latent 
talent of caricaturing. Frequently the margin is filled with 
idle jottings, ugly forms, and meaningless scribbling, witnessing 
to the vagaries of a wandering attention. It has finer possi- 
bilities, however. Instead of serving as a frame of the printed 
page forbidding with an adolescent's wit or idleness, it should 
serve as a depository of : 

First, the summary of each paragraph. If the pupil is trained 
to write along the side of each paragraph a brief summary of its 
main thought, he wiU save much time in his studying. 

Second, references to related material in the same book or else- 
where. 

Third, questions on the lesson, questions that arise during the 
reading of the lesson and that must be jotted down at once lest 
they vanish. 

Fourth, criticisms of the lesson, points of view different from the 
author's, the pupil's fresh reaction to the subject matter. 

FifthjUew thoughts, suggestions, large questions that are destined, 
perhaps, to stimulate the young man or young woman into serious 
plans of great living. 




Methods of Studying 171 

The possibilities of the margin are immeasurable.^ Here 
the pupil or the reader is invited to deal intimately with the 
author through his book. Nothing is more attractive to the 
real student than a book well thumbed and scented with the 
presence of fine thinking on its contents. Books so often lie 
cold and ignored even though read and commented on. They 
lack the touch of the individual reader. Written for many, 
they, however, depend upon the individual's opinion and criti- 
cism for favor and influence. This should be true in the high 
school, where life's finer things are taught, and where habits of 
living and working should find a large place in the activities 
of the school day. 

What is true of the margin is equally true of the flyleaves. 
They offer large opportunities for personal conunent of the best 
kind. Here, again, is a basis of class standing. Marking 
pupils on their reaction to the books used in class is of no less 
importance than knowing a few dates and the details of 
Ivanhoe or Lady of the Lake, 

d. Inserted Leaves, For the sake of compactness and also 
economy of time it is helpful to paste blank pages in the book 
at the close of a chapter or here and there within the chapter. 
On these pages can be written outlines, summaries, references, 
etc. The advantage of this method is that at the end of the 
term these extra pages can be removed without any harm to the 
book; They should be of thin paper so that the bulk of the 
book will not break the back. A thin, narrow strip of paste on 
the left edge is sufficient. This edge should be inserted close 
to the binding of the book. 

D. Pupils' Comments on their Methods of Studying. Be- 
fore taking up another section of this subject it will be inter- 

* Howard Griggs, The Use of the Margin, 



172 



Supervised Study 



esting to note what Rickard and Giles gleaned concerning 
some of the foregoing methods of work. In answer to his 
question, Do you xmderscore the most important point in the 
text ? Giles obtained the following results : 

Table XVIII. — The Fbequency of Umderscosing 





Fourth Year 


TnntD Year 


Second Year 


First Year 


Totals 


Yes 
No 


21 

4 


63 
6 


58 
27 


SO 
23 


192 
60 



Rickard, however, in reply to a similar question received 
less favorable replies. His results are shown in the general 
table on page 193. 

It is altogether likely that many high school pupils all over 
the coimtry use the methods described. Whether they do so 
intelligently and with considerable skill based on careful in- 
struction, is quite another question. The point here as else- 
where in this book is simply this, that these methods should 
be taught just as much as are history or English or science. 

2. The Use of Reference Books, including Dictionaries and 
Encyclopedias and Magazines. Almost every teacher who 
reads this book will agree that few high school pupils (not to 
mention pupils on other levels) know how to use a dictionary. 
One needs only refer to the beginner's study of a foreign lan- 
guage and the confusion of selecting proper meanings to fit a 
hazy translation to understand the bewilderment of many 
yoxmg people using the dictionary of their mother tongue — 
English. This is not necessarily a criticism of the dictionary. 
Language is bound to be complex, and there must be a wealth 



Methods of Studying 173 

of definitions. In the front of many dictionaries are direc- 
tions, but few people consult them. Even if they should do so, 
the directions themselves often need interpretation. 

Dictionaries are arranged in alphabetical order not simply 
in regard to the initial letter of each word but the second and 
third letters, etc., are arranged in a similar order. This fact 
is frequently overlooked by the yoxmg pupil. During the 
prolonged assignment and supervised study period the 
handling of the dictionary would be an excellent drill lesson 
in study. 

Encyclopedias are elaborate dictionaries on the one hand 
and compendiums of knowledge on the other. The best of 
them are written by high authorities, and endless care is taken 
to make them accurate and at the same time brief. Consider- 
ing their importance, it is surprising to find that few young 
people are taught to use them.^ Young students find it diffi- 
cult to select exactly what is pertinent to the problem. They 
discover something that bears a similar title and then proceed 
to copy long sections of what often proves to be irrelevant mate- 
rial. This means loss of time and effort. It is due in the main to 
a lack of backgroimd, a broad or general knowledge of the sub- 
ject. For this reason assignments that involve the use of ref- 
erence books must be carefully planned and their preparations 
supervised. One needs only examine the work of university 
students in this particular to note how helpless many of them 
are when assigned readings and reports in reference or outside 
reading. The following report by Miss Caroline S. Lutz of 
the Academy of the James Millikin University is included as 
an excellent illustration of what should be done in every high 
school possessing its own or patronizing the public library. 

^ See G. Lomer and Ashmun, The Study and Practice of Writing English. 



\ 



174 Supervised Study 

Tee Round Table 

a library tour 

We needed to do so much library reference work in our academy 
that we arranged with our city Ubrarian for a systematic tour of 
the city Ubrary for ten students. The tour was planned in three 
stages : (i) the Ubrarian was to reveal the way a book finds its place 
in the Ubrary family ; (2) the cataloguer was to explain how these 
books are classified, cards filed in the catalogue, and positions on the 
shelf given ; (3) the reference Ubrarian was to conduct the party to 
each section of the Ubrary and locate each class of periodical and 
book. 

The ten best students from the third and fourth year classes 
were selected to make the tour, because they would be more enthu- 
siastic and more accurate in presenting the material to the students 
who were not present. They had their Uttle pads and pencils ready 
when we were invited into the private oflBice of the Ubrarian. She 
gave us each an accession card. Then she told us the story of " Book 
X" : how an accession card was made out for it, not because one 
of the Ubrarians had learned about it in the A. L. A. booklet or from 
a book review in a periodical, but because a friend had desired the 
book ; how this card had been filed in the drawer, " Books Wanted " ; 
how one day it had come out to be placed on the Ust to go before the 
Ubrary board ; how the Ubrary board did not think the book too 
expensive, although it was a very fine book; how the accession 
card for "Book X" then fovmd itself in the drawer "Outstanding 
Orders" ; how the book was received, checked up, and entered in 
the accession book ; how the cataloguer then took it to give it a 
call niunber, to make out and file its cards in the catalogue, and to 
send it out to the shelves, labeled. 

What had happened to this book had happened to forty thou- 
sand other books, and in the cataloguer's room we learned how these 
thousands of books can each have a different caU nimiber. SUps 
with the foUowing information were given us: 



Methods of Sttdying 175 

DEWEY DECIMAL CLASSIFICATION 

Classes 

000 — General Works 500 — Natural Science 

100 — Philosophy 600 — Useful Arts 

200 — Religion 700 — Fine Arts 

300 — Sociology 800 — Literature 

400 — Philology 900 — History (Biography and Travel) 

Each class is divided into ten divisions, each division into ten 
sections, the sections into subsections, etc. 

Besides a class number every book has an author number. The 
combination of these two numbers forms the call number of a partic- 
ular book, and is the number in the upper left-hand corner of the 
catalogue card and on the back of the book. It is the key to the 
location of a book on the shelves. 

PREFIXES TO CLASS NUMBERS 

R — Reference room 

B — Bound periodicals (lower stack) 
*R — Reference (Lib. or Cat. R.) 

P — Public documents 

J — Children's books 

H Oversized books 

F — French ; G — German, etc. 
BL — Books for the blind. 

With these data before us, the cataloguer explained the Dewey 
Decimal System and the Cutter Table. Then she turned to the 
many books which she had arranged on the shelves of her oflBice for 
the occasion. There were ten books to illustrate the call numbers 
of ten general classes of books. There were other books to illus- 
trate the exceptions to the rule, such as the big "S" in the call 
nimiber of the short-story group. There were still other books to 



% 



176 Supervised Study 

illustrate the special symbols used, such as the red "J" for books 
in the children's room. There were more books to give us the key 
to the order of precedence on the shelves, with special reference to 
the compUcated decimal. After we had looked at these books 
and their labels, we listened to a Uttle talk about the Dictionary 
Catalogue : how it differs from an index ; how the system of classi- 
fication imder a specific subject is followed; how the catalogue 
answers about twenty different general questions, such as, " What is 

the real name of ?" "Who wrote a biography of ?" 

"Has a certain book a sequel?" "Who is joint author of a certain 
work?" "What bulletins does the Ubrary contain?" "By what 
means was a certain periodical first pubHshed?" and "With what 
year and volvraie does our file of a certain magazine begin?" how 
the cards are filed in the order of person, place, thing, and works 
before criticisms ; how the abbreviations and the figures are con- 
sidered as if spelled out ; how the articles are disregarded ; and how 
the subjects are written in red. Then we went to the catalogue 
itself. Each student was given a sHp of paper with three library 
problems. The following are examples : 

1. Have we a book by Jean Mace? 

2. Who wrote the Riverside Art Series? 

3. Locate the Sherlock Holmes stories. 

1. How many different editions have we of Bimyan's Pilgrim^ s 
Progress? 

2. Find order of stories in Wellworth College Series. 

3. Locate Riis's Ten Years^ War, 

The first two required just the use of the catalogue. The last 
problem asked for the call numbers of certain books. These were 
used later. 

The third part of our visit was in charge of the reference librarian. 
She called our attention to the fact that all books and periodicals 
in the library have a definite order of arrangement. First she 
showed us how the periodicals and newspapers in the reading 
room are arranged alphabetically; then how the books in the 



Methods of Studying 177 

reference room are arranged according to the Dewey Classifica- 
tion. A number of books such as the index to Britannica, New 
International Encyclopedia, Brewer's Reader's Hand Book, Walsh's 
Curiosities of Foptdar Customs, Harper's Dictionary of Classical 
Literature, Hoyt's Cyclopcedia of Practical Quotations, Who's Who, 
and Stateman's Year Book were given special attention. Poole's 
Index and Reader's Guide were consulted before going to the lower 
stacks to see how the periodicals were arranged. We saw the 
different classes of books for circulation in place ; we located books 
for the blind, oversized books, French and German books. We 
made use of the call numbers which we had written opposite ques- 
tion 3 on our sUps. Ten deUghted students located ten books, not 
easy to find, in quick time. Students who before had borrowed 
cards or begged to be excused from Ubrary work now felt at home 
and wanted cards. 

Effective reference work depends, then, upon a clear concep- 
tion of the problem, — upon what the ** goal idea " is in this ad- 
ditional reading. Consequently, reference work must rest on a 
very specific assignment in the less advanced classes. Clearly, 
the type of reference work rightly expected of advanced uni- 
versity students should not have a place in the high school. 
But only too frequently high school teachers employ imiversity 
t)^es of assignments in the secondary schools, and the results 
cannot be other than discouraging. They are depressing 
enough in higher education. Before pupils are sent into li- 
braries to look up additional material, there should be careful 
training in this type of work, training just as minute and 
organized as any of the traditional subject drills. 

3. Use of the Outline. Ordinarily, outlines are used as 
preliminaries to a lengthy discussion or report. They set 
forth a scheme of treating a subject, giving a review of the 
points to be considered with the probable amount of emphasis 

N 



178 Supervised SPudy 

or space that properly belongs to each head. They serve the 
purpose of a map or a purpose similar to that of an architect's 
plans of a building. For a long discussion, such as a book or a 
magazine article, they are almost indispensable. They are 
less essential to a brief treatment. Some writers do not 
employ them at all. They have a clear conception of the field 
and of the form, and write rather under the excitement of a 
theme that seemingly develops itself logically or psychologi- 
cally. But, although these writers or speakers do not use a 
written outline, they follow a plan that is the result of analysis 
based on careful thinking. PhiUips Brooks, the renowned 
preacher, rarely used outlines of the ordinary kind. Instead, 
he constructed his sermons on the basis of so many paragraphs, 
each paragraph containing a new point, a higher rung in the 
ladder of his development of the theme. It was a ladder 
type of outline, not definitely sketched beforehand, but 
growing naturally out of the leading conception of his 
theme. 

Outlines have also another function. They are not only 
pencil sketches or charcoal strokes of the painting to be made, 
they are also analyses ; i.e., in the studying of an assignment 
in the textbook the pupil must first of all grasp the author's 
meaning, not in a general way, but in detail. As far as possible 
he must reproduce the author's framework, ascertain the 
basal and incidental parts of the material. The pupil's out- 
line, however, will necessarily differ from the author's. It 
must be his own outline of the author's discussion, and reflect 
his own understanding of the problem. To be sure, much of 
the outline will reproduce the author's arrangement of the 
material ; but it is important that the pupil react with his own 
conception and interpretation of the lesson. In other words. 



Methods of Studying 179 

« 

the outline of the next lesson should involve original thinking 
on the part of the pupil. 

Viewed from this angle, outlines, as a factor in studying, are 
more than bare skeletons of the lesson. As employed in this 
chapter the term includes something finer and more difficult 
than mere listing of points haphazardly selected from each 
paragraph. The outline is a reconstruction of the author's 
material as the pupil sees it. It must be the pupil's own 
analysis. No two outlines in a class where studying is cor- 
rectly performed will be exactly alike, although in general form 
they will of course have many similarities. 

a. The Structure of Outlines. Outlines should follow certain 
set rules.^ 

Construction of Headings 

(a) They should represent main divisions, important aspects, or 
distinct steps in the treatment of the subject. 

{h) They should as far as possible be consistently expressed in 
the form of nouns, noun phrases, or complete sentences. 

(c) When related, they should be expressed in parallel form. 

(rf) They should be as brief as is compatible with clearness. 

(e) They should be so worded as to make the most important 
element in the heading emphatic. 

DETAILS OF ARRANGEMENT 

(a) Headings of coordinate value should always be the same 
distance from the left-hand margin. 

(i) Subordinate headings should always be indented under the 
heading to which they are subordinate ; and subheadings which are 
of equal value should be indented the same distance. 

(c) When headings or notes run over one line, the second line 
should begin either level with the first word of the preceding line or 

1 Lomer and Ashmim, op. cU., pp. 198, 199. ^ 

r 



i8o Supervised Study 

else should be indented. It should never run out to the margin or 
begin level with the number or letter indicating the heading. 

{d) Avoid the practice of too elaborate subordination. Do not 
put in the form of minute headings material not important to the 
outUne. Too much detail is confusing and properly belongs in the 
text. 

(e) The marks generally used to indicate headings and sub- 
headings are Roman (I, II, III, etc.) and Arabic numerals (i, 2, 3, 
etc.), capitals (A, B, C, etc.) and small letters (a, b, c, etc.), and 
occasionally the letters of the Greek alphabet (a, j8, 7). 

if) Roman numerals are generally used to indicate large parts or 
sections of an outline ; letters should not be used where there are a 
large number of headings of coordinate value or where numerical 
order is significant. The system of numeration indicated in A', 
A", or AS A^, I^ P, F, has the obvious disadvantages of being 
too confusing. 

{g) Except in the case of a brief for an argument do not use the 
terms Introduction and Conclusions, unless they include material 
distinct from that in the rest of the outline. 

Qi) A tabulated Ust of matter arranged in colimms should be 
clearly indented under its special heading. Any matter following 
the tabulation and included in the note should follow rules (a), 
(ft), and (c) given above. 

The authors of the foregoing suggest further that subhead- 
ings should be avoided when the material could readily be 
included in the main head or properly omitted. A single 
heading could hardly be justified, but as a counter suggestion 
it should be noted that corollaries to theorems in geometry 
are subheads and often are single. 

6. The Forms of Outlines, The foregoing excellent rules 
can be illustrated under a variety of forms of outlines fre- 
quently met with in all kinds of school work. 



% 



Methods of Studying i8i 

(i) The Vertical or Serial Outline. This is the simplest 
of the forms, consisting of a number of items listed one below 
the other, all coordinate one with the other. Each topic 
sentence of a number of paragraphs would constitute an item 
in such an outline. The chief events of a reign, or a presiden- 
tial administration, would be listed in such an outline form, if 
there were no subordinate points included. The itemized 
statements of merchant's bills are vertical outlines. 

If the pupil writes in the margin the topic sentence oppo- 
site the proper paragraph, he will have at the end of his lesson 
a vertical outline complete. The review would then include 
principally this margin outline. Or the main points might be 
written on the inserted page. It is better to keep the outline 
together with the text by means of the margin or inserted pages. 
In the beginning, however, pupils should practice outlining on 
separate sheets. 

(2) The Oblique Outline. This requires considerable ability 
to think, the power of discriminating between essentials and 
non-essentials, and also the ability to make the whole outline 
effective for review purposes. The form of the outline has 
already been referred to under the various rules or mechanics 
of headings, mdentations, etc. Two are here given. 

/ A 

A I 

I a 

a I 

I) a) 

a) I) 

(i) (a) 

(a) (i) 

!• ai 

ai I* 

Etc. Etc. 

FiGUSE XI 



l82 



Supervised Study 



(3) The Parallel Outline. This is a double or multiple verti- 
cal outline. It is used mainly for purposes of comparison ; as, 
for example, in history, where contemporaneous reigns are 
compared, and also for laboratory reports. Illustrations of 
both kinds are given below : 

A Parallel Oxttline in History 
Table of the Thirteen Original States^ 



Colony 


Date 


First Setilement 


MonvB 


Setixbes 


Viigmia .... 
Massachusetts . . 


1607 
1620 


Jamestown 
Plymouth 


Wealth 

Religious 
freedom 


English 
adventurers 

English 
Separatists 



Fegttke XII 



A Parallel Outline in Science 





Table for Guide in Study of Minerals' 






Name 


Hakd- 

NE8S 


Color 


Specific 
Grayity 


Crystal 
Fork 


Cleav- 
age 


Frac- 
ture 


Luster 


OlHEK 

Fbaxuiis 


Quartz . . 

Calcite . . 
Etc. . 


7 


Trans- 
parent 


2.6 


Hexag- 
onal 


Name 


Con- 
choidal 


Vitre- 
ous 





FiGTTKE Xin 

(4) The Brace or Horizontal Outline is less familiar to the high 
school pupil and in general is less used than the others. It 
presents the material cleariy and with more economy of space 

* Dickson, American History for Grammar Schools, 
« Tarr, Th^ New Physical Geography, 



k 



Methods of Studying 



183 



than the oblique form. It is of special service in grammar 
work when the teacher desires to employ a diagram that varies 
from the usual type. Examples of this form follow : 




or 



etc. 



Feguse XIV 

(5) The Interlacing Outline. An illustration of this type 
is given in this chapter. It sometimes happens that illustra- 
tive material, such as tables or other forms of statistical results, 
must be broken up in order to make the reference especially 
suggestive or striking at the time. It becomes necessary, 
then, to scatter the results throughout the chapter as done here ; 
but, inasmuch as all of this material belongs to a particular 
large section of the chapter, it is given its own outline, which 



/ 



184 Supervised Study 

dovetails into the general outline of the chapter. For example, 
the capital letters in this chapter belong to the overlapping 
outline. 

4. Notebooks. There is need of a warning note at this 
point. Doubtless too much emphasis has been placed on note- 
book work, especially in English, where much time is spent in 
copying poems and a long variety of interpretations. When 
one considers the great amount of themes, copying material, 
or organization of lessons in notebooks, and the working of 
problems on paper common to the average school and the 
customary assignments, it would seem that the educative or 
learning process is as much manual as mental, with perhaps 
an overemphasis on the former. 

Notebooks, as already indicated, are used for a variety of 
purposes. In science it is important that formulae and 
experiments preferred by the pupil have a record permanent 
enough for reviews and examinations, if not for a longer period. 
In English it is customary to employ notebooks for many 
reasons, some of them legitimate and others questionable. 
(A more detailed discussion of the English problem may be 
found in Part II, Chapter IX.) Perhaps there is more need 
of notebook work in history than in any other subject except- 
ing mathematics. The necessary correlations and reorganiza- 
tions essential in the studying of history require careful re- 
cording in some form of notebooks. 

In high school there is, as a rule, little need of notebooks 
for the purpose of taking lecture notes. It is extremely doubt- 
ful whether instruction by telling or by the frequent employment 
of exposition is effective in high school. A certain amount of 
explanation beyond that of the texts is, of course, essential. 
These references by the teacher might be recorded in note- 



Methods of Studying 185 

books, although it probably would be more helpful to write 
these explanatory notes on insert pages or in the margin. 
Many students .fill the flyleaves and covers of their text- 
books with various notations. It is an excellent practice to 
paste book reviews or criticisms of each book in one's personal 
copies. 

a. Kinds of Notebooks, In looking over an ordinary class 
the teacher will find a confusing variety of notebooks, some 
large, others small; some opening at the end, others at the 
side ; some loose-leaf, but most of them bound. Many note- 
books are carelessly bound, and therefore easily bent and torn. 
A shabby-looking notebook is a mark of a careless pupil. 
Tools should always be in good condition, 

(i) The loose-leaf notebook has many advantages over the 
bound. The cover is stiff, the pages can be rearranged for 
purposes of correlation or expansion. It lies open easily. 
For the sake of imiformity of tools — as in manual training 
or domestic science and laboratories, every pupil should have 
the same kind of notebook with pages of letter size (8 J X 11) 
and opening at the side. The initial expense of such a book is 
a little greater than for the kind ordinarily bought, but the 
same cover can be used in every course. The additional 
expense of paper is cheaper than buying a notebook for each 
subject., When the course has been completed, the pages con- 
taining its material can be bound with manila covers and 
strings (girls probably would prefer ribbons) or bound in more 
permanent form in the bindery of the high school. 

(2) Cards. A modification of the loose-leaf notebook, and 
preferred by some students, is the card or stiff paper usually 
4X6. It is convenient for reference work or merely tem- 
porary notations. The following is a typical form : 



i86 



Supervised Study 



Casd tor Reference Work 



Coum 



Page. 



Author. 



Topic being studied 



RxnEKEMcne Nons 
Title of BooL 



^ 



FiGUKE XV 

(3) Manila Folders and FUing Cases. A much better device 
consists of large manila folders in which are filed items pertain- 
ing to the subject named on the projection of the folder. 
These are filed in a wooden or steel cabinet according to al- 
phabet. Clippings, magazine articles, jottings, references, etc., 
can be recorded in this way for ready service and be discarded 
if desired when the pupil has no further need of them. A 
convenient size is iif X 8f, with an additional half -inch pro- . 
jection for the subject. This size is suitable for magazine 
articles and letter-size notepaper. The loose-leaf pages of 
the notebook can be filed in such folders without requiring 
covers or binding. 

Filing cases can be made in the manual training department 
for each pupil. A large cabinet or series of cabinets with a 
drawer for each pupil should belong to the supervised study 
equipment of every room where the notebook work is done. 
Or a large room, like a locker room, could be set aside for these 



Methods of Studying 



187 



cabinets, each pupil of the school possessing one with individ- 
ual key. In this drawer could be filed, in a systematic way, 
all the extra material in every subject. The cabinet or series 
of cabinets should be made somewhat as follows : 









L ,. J 




1 J 




1 1 










1 1 







1 I 






. 




1 I 




1 1 




L, 1 









L 1 




1 ...1 




1 1 











Figure XVI 



On the front of each drawer appears the pupil's name, writ- 
ten on a card, inserted in a small frame for this purpose. At 
the end of the term the name can be changed, if necessary, and 
the contents of the drawer removed. 

A side view of one drawer is given in the next 
drawing. 



Rmtt 







FiGTTKE XVn 






1 88 Supervised Study 

The folders stand in the drawer. A sliding back or large 
block of wood should be used to support the folders if there are 
only a few of them. A check to keep the drawer from being 
pulled out all the way has been found serviceable. 

Pupils in the manual training department can easily design 
and construct these filing cabinets, but in planning for new 
buildings it would be better to provide for them at the begin- 
ning and have them built in, as is customary with bookshelves. 

Before closing this section on filing cases, it may not be im- 
proper to remind teachers that just as much care should be 
taken in systematizing the details of studying as is taken in 
caring for the pupil's wardrobe or gymnasiiun outfit. The 
pupil should be marked on his ability to do filing properly and 
progressively. It is important in business, in any well-organ- 
ized office, where secretaries are employed to do the work. 
But it is equally vital in the life of the individual whose time 
and effort are in many cases his only original capital of success. 
Authors, professors, public speakers, and houseWives fijid this 
method invaluable. System as a means, not an end, is funda- 
mental in the life of every individual whatever his career, and, 
for this reason, pupils in high school should be taught how to 
study and how to live economically. 

b. How to keep Notebooks. Much valuable time is lost by 
pupils who do not have an effective method of keeping note- 
books. The book is merely a loose collection of material, 
hastily written, unorganized, and soon imintelligible because 
insufficiently prepared. Two matters of great importance 
must, therefore, be considered at this time. 

(i) How to take Notes. Although there is less need of taking 
notes in high school than in college, what is done should be per- 
formed well. Several rules deserve attention. 



Methods of Studying 189 

Notes should be brief but at the same time elaborate enough 
to prove intelligible for study purposes. On the one hand, it is 
a mistake to take complete notes. Unless the pupil knows 
shorthand, verbatim notes are impossible and, it may be added, 
usually unnecessary. On the other hand, the notes should 
be complete enough to convey definite and accurate meanings. 
Otherwise the pupil will be wholly confused while studying. 

Speed and accuracy are enhanced by employing abbrevia- 
tions of common words. The writer early foimd it helpful 
to use such a personal system of shorthand. Kg., for example, 
means knowledge ; Km. chemistry ; Skpr. Shakespeare, etc. 
Final letters of words can be omitted in shorthand work. It 
is well to have a key of such abbreviations on the inside of the 
notebook cover for future reference. In supervised study a 
variety of abbreviations might be determined upon for class 
use, so that every one would know the meaning of them. Study 
symbols certainly are as appropriate as signs and symbols 
in mathematics and science. 

Some lectiurers usually help pupils to take notes by pausing 
at the end of a sentence. This enables the hearer to get the 
main points. It is helpful, also, if the lecturer summarizes 
each section of his discourse or if he uses many illustrations 
under each head. It is not possible to note all the illustrations. 
One might be recorded in detail, the others merely mentioned. 

If the teacher employs an outline on the board, the pupil 
should use this as a framework, copying it as the teacher ex- 
plains the lesson, point by point. To copy the whole outline 
beforehand is wasteful, for usually many important details 
are added diuing the discussion. 

By careful writing the first time it will be unnecessary to re- 
write the notes. The notebooks should be inspected, but in- 



igo Supervised SPudy 

spection should not stress appearance of handwriting. Note- 
taking is not an exercise in model penmanship. If clear, legi- 
ble, generally neat, and accurate, the notebook has fulfilled 
its main purpose. Too much time is spent on recopying notes. 
The writer requires his students to hand in carbon copies of all 
reference reading, as a timesaver to the student and also a 
training in preparing notes effectively the first time. Although 
rewriting notes forms a good means of reviewing, an outline 
would be just as effective. 

(2) The Appearance of the Notebook. The general appear- 
ance or structure of notebooks should follow a imiform plan 
throughout the class. 

On the cover of the notebook (preferably the loose-leaf) 
should be pasted a slip of paper 2X4, bearing the name of the 
school, the pupil, school year, and courses being studied. In 
the event of becoming lost, the book could easily be identified. 

Label on Cover of Notebook 



THE JEFFERSON HIGH SCHOOL 

Name of Pupil 

School Yeas 

Courses 



FiGUKE xvm 



If the school year and courses are recorded in pencil, they 
can be changed when necessary. Or another label can be 




Methods of Studying 



191 



pasted over the old one when the pupil changes school or 
courses. This renders it unnecessary to buy more than one 
loose-leaf cover for the high school period. 

A left-hand margin of one and one half inches should be ob- 
served for minor additions, dates, name of subject or topic, and 
name of teacher ; for example : 

Sample Page in History Notebook 



Hbtoky 




Miss Brown . . 




9-9^5 




War of 181 3 


• 


Nov. 2, 191 s 






















• 



















FiGUKE XDC 



By this method the pupil can easily rearrange his notes by sub- 
jects in a chronological and logical order. 



192 Supervised Study 

It is interesting to note what Washington has to say about the 
use of notes: "Whenever I set down to write you I read your 
letter or letters carefully over, and as soon as I come to a part 
that requires to be noticed, I make a short note on the cover of a 
letter or piece of waste paper — then read on to the next, noting 
that in Uke manner ; and so on imtil I have got through the whole 
letter and reports. Then in writing my letter to you, as soon as 
I have finished what I have to say on one of these notes, I draw 
my pen through it and proceed to another and another until the 
whole is done, crossing each as I go on, by which means, if I am 
called off twenty times whilst I am writing, I can never with these 
notes before me finished or unfinished omit anything I wanted to 
say." ^ 

Pages should be numbered as used and by subjects. Each 
period's work should have its own series of page numerals, in 
pencil. Later when all the pages of each course are collected, 
they can be numbered consecutively in ink. 

Pupils will find it helpful to make indices of their notes. In- 
dexing requires instruction, and hence forms another unit of 
study during supervised study periods. 

It should be stated in this connection that inserted leaves 
or marginal notes in the textbook should be indexed by the 
pupil at the end of the book. The pupil's own indexing is an 
excellent means of review. 

E. Pupils' Comments on their Methods of Studying. Do 
pupils employ, to any considerable extent, dictionaries, outlines, 
note taking, etc. ? Rickard, in the investigation already re- 
ferred to, gives the following information on these points : 



* Paul Leicester Ford, The True George Washington, p. 68. 



\ 



Methods of Studying 193 

Table XIX. — Percentage using Vauous Devices of SrtiDY by Gkades 






Year — B aod A. Sections combined . 
Percentage knowing the general topic . , 
Percentage of each grade using the follow- 
ing Diethods: 

I. Read once 

a. Use dictionary 

3. Use maps 

4. Re-read once or more 

J. Ask themselves questions and attempt 

6. Repeat off book 

7. Use additional reference 

8. Outline 

9. Tell story in own words 

10. Use comparison and contrast 

n. Exercise judgment in the choice of sub- 

13. Merely recognize that there are points 
or subtopics 

13. Write out notes 

14. Use glossary 

15. Translate 

1(3. Memorize dates 

1 7. Find the paragraph which gives auawers 

to questions 

18. Underscore words 

19. Look up references in footnotes . . . 

20. Group events about dates .... 



Two results obtained by GUes in his investigation confirm 
in substance those of Rickard. About 46 per cent of Giles's 
pupils employed outlines ; 43 per cent wrote out notes on their 
lessons ; about 81 per cent in studying history, science, and 
English literature, etc., tried to pick out the most important 



194 



Supervised Stvdy 



points in a lesson and master them. Table XX contains addi* 
tional information on these points. 



Table XX. — Methods of Study found Most EEelpful 





Fourth 


TtasD 


Sbcoiid 


Fissi 


TOXALI 




Ykar 


Year 


Year 


Year 


a. Writing notes . . 


3 


3 


6 


7 


19 


h. Writing translation. 


o 


o 


I 


o 


I 


c. Outlining .... 


6 


II 


31 


3- 


41 


J. Underscoring . . . 


ID 


ID 


9 


2 


31 


e, Reading aloud . . 


I 


3 


I 


2 


7 


/. Reciting to some one 


Z 


I 


5 


1 


8 


g. Closing book . . . 


S 


21 


i8 


19 


63 


h. Other plan . . . 


o 


7 


13 


6 


36 



Outlining and underscoring are preferred to writing notes. 

Summary. It is not a question of whether or not many or 
all pupils employ these methods (although it is interesting to 
find how many do favor them), but the question of more 
f imdamental importance is how these methods are prosecuted. 
Underscoring, outlining, notebook work, can be helpful or 
harmful. Unless they are employed skillfully they are labor 
and material wasted. If recognized as tools, kept in effective 
condition, and drilled upon, they can become most useful. 
They are already part of high school education, but in all 
too many instances are taught, if at all, only in coiurses in 
English. Each teacher will find it an advantage to devote 
time to this work and to evolve modifications or elaborations 
of the methods and devices discussed so far in this chapter. 
Eventually in the fourth year of high school and later in coUege, 
each pupil should be able to fashion his own methods with 
more success if schooled in this kind of work. 



V 



CHAPTER Vm 
METHODS OF STUDYING (Continued) 

5. Reports, Special Papers, Etc. No small part of the 
pupil's work consists of handing in reports or papers on various 
topics. This is an elaborate form of problem assignments, 
and, when properly done, a mark of high efficiency. It is 
employed in what has been called the social recitation,^ which 
essentially is a prolonged or extended supervised study period. 

a. Haw to prepare for Writing Reports. The report, as a rule, 
consists of a collection of data illustrating some topic, proving 
an hj^othesis, or presenting evidence on some moot question, 
etc. Whatever the form or contents of the report, it may be 
called a simple tj^e of research work. It implies originality 
and organization, and may offer recommendations or state 
conclusions. For this reason certain principles and rules of 
procedure should be borne in mind. 

Data or references should be organized under separate heads 
to which all items can be referred. The filing system pre- 
viously considered is one form of this method of collecting data. 
Another is illustrated in the accompanying figure. Several 
pages are shown lying side by side with the topic at the top. 
Relevant material is noted imder each topic. Cards may be 
used in the same way. 

^ An excellent example of this t3rpe is found in The Modem High School, 
edited by Chas. Hughes Johnston, Chapter IX, by Miss Dora Williams, Teacher 
of Physidogy and Hygiene, Boston Normal School, Boston, Mass. 

19s 



i 



196 



Supervised Study 



Specimen Pages op Reference Sheets por Making Reports 



Biographical 

Material about 

Longfellow 



Sources of 
Hiawatha 



Interpretations 
of Hiawatha 



Indian Life 



Where and How 

DSAlfATBED 

To-day 



Figure XX 

The loose-leaf notebook lends itself to this method very 
conveniently. If more than one sheet of paper is required, 
they should all be pinned or " clipped " together and each 
page numbered. 

State accurately all sources of information, giving name 
of author, title of book or article, publisher or volume, and 
date of magazine and pages. Pupils as a rule are very negli- 
gent in this matter. But it is of utmost importance that they 
should be trained to give proper credit for information ac- 
quired. It is not only just to the author, but it gives strength 
and dignity and authority to the pupil's statements. A 
convenient mode of stating the reference is by parenthesis 
after the point itself or at the close of the paragraph. The 
reference usually takes this form : 



% 



Methods of Studying 197 

S. S. Seward, Notetaking, Boston, 1910, p. 50. 

Quotations, besides the usual quotation marks, may be 
stated in an indented paragraph, about half an inch farther 
in than the main section, observing this margin to the end 
of the passage. They should be as brief and as few as possible 
and employed only for purposes of clear illustrations or very 
exact language. 

When this preliminary work of gathering material is com- 
plete, the various sheets, topic by topic, should be collected 
and the material organized under logical heads, care being 
taken to discuss each point under a distinct head rather than 
scattering the material without any clear scheme of arrange- 
ment at all evident. Duplicate notes and others not im- 
portant for the present purpose should now be discarded or 
filed as the first draft of the report is organized. 

The first writing of the report should follow the outline sug- 
gested under b on next page. But it often becomes necessary 
to make changes in the arrangement ; additions are also need- 
ful. The first draft, although the pupil should take the greatest 
pains to write it well and logically, is rarely finished enough 
for others' eyes. Revision is a constant necessity. 

A convenient device for supplementing the first draft is to add 
the new material on another sheet of paper numbered Uke the first 
sheet of the old material but bearing also a letter. For example, 
the first page is 10. The added page will be 10*. On page 10 at 
the place where the new material is to be added write "insert here 
page 10*." If the additional material is brief, an interlinear Une or 
marginal reference will suffice. 

The second writing should not be undertaken until the 
pupil is satisfied that all necessary revision has been made. 
The second draft should then be written in clear, concise 



i 



V 



198 Supervised Study 

language, avoiding many adjectives and involved sen- 
tences. 

After the first or second drafts have been completed, it is a 
good practice to wait several days or as long as possible before 
imdertaking the final revision and " dressing " of the report. 
This delay enables the pupil to edit his work somewhat ob- 
jectively ; i.e., he will approach it with more freshness, the 
sentences perhaps will not seem as smooth as they did at first, 
and statements made will not seem as forceful as at first. He 
reads more like a stranger than as the author himself, and 
for this very reason may be able to edit or revise with more 
balance, more impartiality. Delay is an advantage also 
for the sake of including the latest information which will 
make the report up-to-date. This is less important in school 
work, but may have value especially in dvics or any other 
form of community assignments. 

b. The Appearance of the Finished Report. The final form-of 
the report should be legible or typewritten, with the space be- 
tween paragraphs slightly wider than that between the lines. 

The margin on the left hand should be at least an inch 
wide — long quotations having a wider margin. Sentences 
should not extend to the edge or to the bottom of the pages. 
A margin or frame aroimd the report is desirable. 

Important words and foreign words should be underscored, 
the former with red ink. 

At the end of the report there should be a list of references 
used in preparing the report. The form of this bibliography 
is suggested imder 5 a. 

The paper should be held together with a clip, folded length- 
wise or not at all, but never rolled. 

A cover of stiff manila paper bearing name of pupil, subject 



Methods of Studying 199 

of report, and date should keep the first page from becoming 
soiled or ragged. 

6. Supplementary Reading. This is the golden age of 
free libraries and cheap editions. Books are no longer the 
symbols of wealth and favored learning — everybody who is 
able to read may do so for the mere wishing. And yoimg 
people read! Fiction, erotic and adventurous, is thumbed 
and embraced. Youth is ravenous for adventures imder the 
candle flicker or the glow of the carbon wire. Here is a force, 
an instinct, an interest to lasso and to harness. There must 
be time for it ; but even more than this, there must be a cul- 
tured liking for literature that edifies without moralizing, and 
informs without consciously instructing. And in addition to 
this, the pupil needs to know how to read, how to derive the 
most good and lasting gain from this feUowship with books. 

Much of our reading is desultory, sauntering, strolling in 
its method. It is without destination but delightfully care- 
free, openly friendly to chance meetings on the way, frankly 
interested in the many unexpected discoveries made on these 
excursions. But it is also true that when a Charles Darwin 
went strolling and when a Beethoven kicked the grass in the 
field, they saw and heard what other less seeing and less 
hearing men failed to experience on the same roads. They 
carried a purpose, — "a goal idea," — a collection of magnets 
that drew illustrations, suggestions, and new truths from the 
road and hillsides. 

Too much stress in these days cannot be placed on what has 
been called " the composite textbook." The one text course 
is rapidly disappearing, mainly for the reason that knowledge 
in all fields is increasing so rapidly that no text can be up-to- 
date very long or large enough to cover all the essentials of 



i 



200 Supervised Study 

point of view in the subject. The very best textbooks 
must be supplemented by additional reading. Reference 
books are important, as we have seen, but supplementary 
reading is equally vital in a course that seeks to arouse in- 
terest in progress toward truth. 

Supplementary reading gains in value — becomes a valu- 
able asset — if the pupil knows what he sees and hears ; and 
if he can find in new pages and less often perused books facts 
and thoughts that actually supplement what he has studied 
more formally. He should, therefore, be taught to read 
with a purpose, always receptive and always equipped with 
means to collect what he finds in this additional, albeit 
informal, studying. 

a. Haw to preserve what is read. By employing a simple 
method of indexmg and recor4mg, the pupil is able to refer 
to what he has read. Some persons spend hours and hours 
copying passages in notebooks. This is necessary at times, 
especially if one does not own the book from which quotations 
are being made; but, as a rule, it is a time-losing method. 
It is liable to inaccuracies on accoimt of careless copying and 
removing a selection from its general connection. Further- 
more, there is considerable truth in what Sydney Smith says: 

"Men seldom read again what they have committed to paper 
nor remember what they have so committed one iota the better for 
their additional trouble. On the contrary I beUeve it has a direct 
tendency to destroy the promptitude and tenuity of memory by 
diminishing the vigor of present attention and by reducing the 
mind to depend on future reference." 

The mind, like the body, is subject to habit control. If 
one early becomes accustomed not to retain what is read 
but merely to copy it in a notebook, this very practice be- 



^ 



Methods of Studying 201 

comes a habit almost fatal to the ability to remember readily 
what has been read. 

A moderate use of notebooks in supplementary reading 
is, however, justifiable, providing one does not spend hours 
copying long selections. Brief, unusual sayings or illustrations 
and allusions are perhaps all that should be attempted. 

b. How to read rapidly. A few simple rules will aid the 
pupil to accomplish an inmiense amoimt of reading each month: 

Read sentences, not words. To stop at each word may be 
important in legal and medical reading, but as a rule it is 
unnecessary in most supplementary work. 

Important words, as a nile, appear at the beginning and at 
the end of a sentence ; the subject, for example, usually being 
found at the beginning. 

Glance rapidly over the paragraph for leading words and 
sentences. The first and last sentences, as a rule, are most 
important. 

The first and last paragraphs ordinarily are more important 
than those intervening, but the pupil should get the main 
words of each paragraph also. The first states the subject 
or point of view, the intervening ones add points of develop- 
ment and in the last may be found conclusions, summary, or 
a final vital point. 

Practice will facilitate the discriminate elimination of 
modifiers, conjunctions, repetitions, and the perfectly obvious. 
If one is reading as a pastime, the increase* of pleasure by 
observing striking descriptions is important ; but supplemen- 
tary reading for the wider range of knowledge does not re- 
quire this detailed enjoyment. 

c. How to copy Material in Notebooks. Much time may 
be saved if the pupil employs the following method in copying : 



i 



202 Supervised Study 

Do not copy mere words. Pupils glance at a word in the 
book, then copy it, and again glance at a word on the page. 
A more effective method is to read a whole sentence or, if 
long, the first part of it, and then to copy this. After a time 
it becomes quite easy to embrace a sentence of moderate length 
in one glance. The additional value in this method, beyond 
that of delaying fatigue, lies in the pupil imderstanding what 
he copies. Mere copying of words fails to convey any con- 
nected meaning, and after copying a brief or long selection 
the pupil has little or no conception of what he has copied. 
He has written isolated words — not associated meanings. 
They do not impress themselves on his mind as connected 
material — but merely an unrelated sequence of words — 
and consequently fail to convey a unity of thought. Copy- 
ing by sentences conveys organized meaning, so that at the 
end of his writing the pupil has acquired a quite definite 
\mderstanding of the contents of the quotation. In this 
way he has actually been studying. 

There is, however, a more effective method of preserving 
the desired material in supplementary reading. Use slips 
of paper with main subject written at the top, these slips 
to be used in either or both of two ways: 

If the pupil owns the book, he should write on the top of 
the slip the topic he is interested in and, as he finds references 
to it in his reading, note on the slip of paper the page of these 
references with the name of the book. The latter is im- 
portant, for the same slip can be used in reading other books. 
When one slip of paper has been filled, of course, others will 
be added. In the book itself parentheses around the passage 
will suflBice for easy recognition. 

If the pupil does not own the book, the same procedure 



Methods of Studying 203 

may be followed with the additional notation of the author 
and edition, if there is more than one edition. There will 
then be no confusion when he later wishes to refer to his 
reference. 

All of this takes a minimum of time, but the amount of 
time saved and the store of valuable material increased by 
such reference work is inestimable. The slips should be filed 
in the large manila envelopes or pasted in the notebook 
imder proper headings. Slips of paper may be used also 
for marking future references. The exact reference desired 
should be inclosed in parentheses. The paper should extend 
slightly above the top of the book. 

7. How to prepare for Examinations. Student language, 
picturesque and rugged, includes a number of vivid words 
referring to the preparation of examinations. " Boning," 
" poling," " cramming," " digging," are some of these 
pictorial terms borrowed from piscatorial experiences, pack- 
ing industries, and the life of the soil. They are expressive 
enough and portray the arduous endeavors of the pupil to 
memorize in an intense brief period of effort enough facts 
to " pass " the " exam." And so one who visits the student's 
room during those strenuous days of manu-mental labor may 
find the student uniformed with a towel aroimd his forehead, 
his feet perchance in a bucket of hot water (perhaps to sym- 
bolize imconsciously the possibility that all of him may be 
similarly immersed on the dreaded day of testing), a steaming 
pot of vile black coffee at his side, and round him books, 
papers, piles of d6bris once scattered over his course. There 
is anxiety a-plemty in the room — a tension of effort that has 
dangerous possibilities. And this is education ! 

In high school there is less of this than at college, for parents 



i 



204 Supervised Study 

see to it that the pupils avoid such evidences of strenuous 
and semi-annual interest in the noble pursuit of knowledge. 
But there is just enough of this sort of thing in high school 
to make it easy for the coming college student to adopt it 
with little or no resistance. 

a. The Use and Abuse of Cramming, It must be admitted 
that there are occasions where cramming is the only way of 
escape under a regime of rigid examinations. Much material 
in the average examination has at best only a temporary or 
" degree " value. After the examination it is an advantage 
to forget most of the items insisted upon during the course. 
As long as teachers stress memory tests there must be a 
considerable amount of " poling " — it is almost inevitable — 
in what may be regarded in the main as a pernicious method 
of testing the process of education. 

The true examination fulfills the necessary purpose of 
reorganization and review of material at points of greatest 
weakness. To ascertain how much the pupil does not know 
of the fundamental imits in the course is perhaps more im- 
portant from the standpoint of effective teaching than to 
know how much the pupil has mastered. If examinations 
could always be followed by reviews of the weak places, their 
value would be greatly enhanced. 

But as a method of study cramming must be condemned 
for several reasons. 

It discourages progressive organization of material. 

It allows for only a superficial grasp of the subject. 

It permits only a temporary knowledge of the course, 
because the object in view is only a brief retention of facts — 
enough to pass the examination. 

It. bars out the fundamental purpose of education, —• train- 




Methods of Studying 205 

ing the pupil to think and overstresses the methods of mem- 
orizing. 

It lowers the pupil's mental strength by making him feel 
insecure — his passing depends on what he can remember y 
but his mental alertness depends upon confidence in his own 
ability. 

It leads to the temptation of cheating. Facts can be copied, 
but original thinking cannot be anticipated. 

It is injurious to the pupil's standing in every subject ; for 
with many examinations to prepare the intense strain of 
memorizing is likely to reduce efficiency in every exammation. 

It jeopardizes the pupil's eyesight, physical and mental 
health more than is necessary. 

It practically limits the pupil's education to the knowledge 
aim; whereas education includes much more than this, — 
the ability to think, to organize, to apply, to lead. 

It produces the attitude that school is an examining in- 
stitution primarily and teachers relentless inquisitors of 
knowledge. 

b. The Best Way to study for Examinations. The pupil who 
makes a daily outline or summary of his work, either by some 
outline form or by fashioning his own review questions, will 
have at the end of the term a splendid backgroimd and frame- 
work for the final review. It is the daily organization that 
counts. There is nothing new in this suggestion, but under 
the administration of supervised study it becomes part of the 
pupil's standing. He is marked as much on the daily pre- 
paredness as on the final examination, — a preparedness that 
embraces not merely a factual recitation, but an ability to 
organize as well. When the time comes for the test or ex- 
amination, all the pupil needs to do is to review his siunmaries 



I 

i 



2o6 Supervised Study 

and his notes with their supplementary material. He nay 
not pass a perfect examination as to details, but he will give 
evidence of wide information, of deep-going appreciation of 
the general meaning of the topic and show that he can move 
about in it intelligently and thoughtfully. Facts come and 
easily go when treated merely as facts; but when learned 
in large connections with correlations and with appUcations, 
they have a tenacity that belongs to the well-related parts of 
any whole. It is because pupils are trained to regard facts 
in themselves as supreme that they tremble with fear lest 
these isolated elements of knowledge drop out. But when a 
topic is studied as a big phase of truth, involving princq>les, 
laws, and tendencies, facts are so many illustrations or evi- 
dences of the main truth. First, get the large perspective, 
panorama, sweep of meaning; and then details will fit in 
with surprising ease. 

All this means that the preparation for examinations is 
continuous — it is like a building rising story by story until 
at last the day of occupancy has arrived. This is the exam- 
ination day of builder and structure alike. The final 
test of the bridge depends upon its ability to stand the strain 
of construction foot by foot. It must resist its own strain 
of derricks and carriers inch by inch long before its trusses 
and arches meet in the finished span or rise in graceful strength 
in the cantilever. So with the masterful pupil, who enters 
upon an examination not hastily and strainedly prepared for, 
but strong and secure in daily understanding of each assign- 
ment and the continuous meaning connecting each assign- 
ment. 

8. How to Memorize. It should not be assimoied that 
because objections have been raised against the almost exdu- 



i 



Methods of Studying 207 

sive method of studying by memorizing that memory is to be 
wholly regarded as vicious in the learning process. Whatever 
one's definition of memory may be, it involves the fact that 
things once experienced can and must be reexperienced if 
the individual is to profit by his past. Thinking itself is the 
reorganization of experience so that it can be serviceable in 
solving new problems. There must be a considerable amount 
of memorizing in every classroom. Education is impossible 
without it. 

Because it is so fimdamental, the pupil should be taught 
correct and economical methods of memorizing, and he should 
be tr^ed in their exercise. The literature on the subject is 
voluminous. References to it are numerous enough outside 
of school work, but it is only the exceptional teacher who 
devotes any or considerable time in teaching the methods 
whereby the imprinting, the recall, the ready reference to 
things learned may be more efiEectively achieved. In this 
chapter it will be valuable to deal with the most successfid 
of these methods. 

a. Methods of Memorizing. {1) A Clear and Accurate First 
Impression. What is to be learned will be recalled as it 
was first acquired. It is the first impression that coimts. 
Facts and relationships learned vaguely or inaccurately will 
remain so unless revised, and it is a well-known truth that 
releaming is twice as difficult as the first learning. Time 
is saved if the pupil makes an effort to obtain, by careful 
reading or questioning, a dear and accurate knowledge of 
the subject the first time. 

(2) Correct and Numerous Associations. Each new fact is 
more easily imderstood by being inunediately associated with 
previous es^erience. What we already know receives the 



/ 



2o8 Supervised SPudy 

stranger-fact and tries to make it part of the group of knowl- 
edge. This is the reason for educated people being more 
receptive to new ideas than are the ignorant who have no 
way of anticipating or judging the importance of new facts 
or views. These associations may be considered under four 
heads : 

(a) Personal Experience, The pupil should constantly seek 
to link up new facts with experience he has already gained. 
Much of this backgroimd of knowledge is enriched by work in 
other classes. Literature and history and physical geography 
may be intimately related. General science is taking the 
place in the high school of diversified scientific courses be- 
cause the young pupil needs, first of all, a broad knowledge of 
scientific truth before he engages in special studies. 

At first men ridiculed the idea of telephones, for there was 
nothing in their experience to receive the new truth. But 
the other day when Vail and Bell talked to each other across 
the whole continent, the fact caused no excitement; and 
when a little later it was annoimced that wireless telephony 
had made audible in New York and Paris the same human 
voices, surprise was mild — we were ready for just such an 
annoimcement. Suffrage was once a cause of intense warfare 
in England: the conmion man had no vote. Enfranchise- 
ment of all men was a startling theory and fact of govern- 
ment. It was attacked and bitterly fought, but to-day when 
women are struggling for what men contended only a few 
years ago, there is less surprise. Universal siiffrage is not a 
wholly new idea. Past experience accepts and judges this 
newer fact. The hardships of the early reformers were 
numerous and bitter because society was unprepared for their 
doctrines. Columbus was laughed to scorn because up to 




Methods of SPudying 209 

his time, so far as men in Spain were aware, no one had 
sailed aroimd the world. We learn easily by gradual ap- 
proaches, — easy marches, — not forced plimges. 

It is necessary, therefore, to connect the past and present 
at every step. Each will interpret and reinterpret the other. 
This process of association is fimdamental in maintaining 
interest and in retaining significant material. 

(h) Collateral or Supplementary Reading. This topic has 
already been referred to at some length. Here it is important 
for still another reason. Few people have time to read all of 
a book. As a rule, it is not necessary to do so. For the sake 
of economy and association books should be read by topics. 
Several books may lie before the pupil. He reads the com- 
ments of one author and those of the others. Their views 
may conflict or supplement. By the method of topical read- 
ing he moves topic by topic through several books, and at 
the end of the term will have read more logically and more 
widely and also with more discrimination than if he had con- 
fined himself to one book at a time. Moreover, by this com- 
parative collateral reading, the pupil is forming rich associa- 
tions. New facts are more readily and habitually pigeon-holed. 
There is a place for everything. Memory has become a system- 
atic scheme of reference. 

(c) Whole Method. In learning a poem or piece of prose 
where verbatim exactness is required, time is saved by employ- 
ing what is technically known as the whole method. The 
more common method, called " the part method," in learning 
a poem, for example, takes a Une at a time and constantly 
repeats the acamaulating . lines imtil the poem has been 
memorized. By the whole method the selection is studied 
logically, for. main and secondary ideas.. The mechanical 



i 



2IO Supervised SPudy 

division into lines and stanzas is disregarded : the poem is 
learned as a whole. 

In more detail the method may be illustrated in the follow- 
ing poem from Rossetti's " House of Life." 

"I have been here before, 

But when or how I cannot tell ; 

I know the grass beyond the door, 

The sweet, keen smell, 
The sighing sound, the lights along the shore. 

You have been mine before. 

How long ago I may not know ; 

But just when, at that swallow's soar. 

Your neck turned so. 
Some veil did fall — I knew it all of yore." 

As a rule, yoimg pupils would memorize this poem by 
learning the first two lines, then the third and fourth, re- 
peating all four. They would then add line five and repeat 
all that had been memorized so far and then continue. A 
large number of needless repetitions are here made ; illogical 
associations are formed, and much artificial work is done. 
Clearly, the poem has one simple theme. " I have been here 
before." The evidence, — grass with its sweet, keen smell; 
sound and lights along the shore ; and at last the swallow's 
soar. Memory is revived in one flash by the winging of the 
swallow. There is a unified thought here that can be stated 
in a plain declarative sentence. The whole poem is read 
through, the main thought extracted, and then logically the 
modifiers are added. 

For very brief poems and prose selections the process is 
much simpler ; one can easily discover the main thought. In 
longer selections the advantage of the method is not apparent 



Methods of Studying 211 

at first ; but the greater amount of attention, logical analysis, 
and clearer understanding of the subject matter, made possible 
by the treatment of the passage as a whole, warrant this type 
of memorizing. 

What has just been said about rote or literal memory ap- 
plies with equal force to logical or idea memory, where the 
meaning of an assignment rather than every word of it must 
be learned. If the pupil begins to study each paragraph by 
itself, he will not appreciate its connection with other parts 
of the lesson. First read the whole lesson through rapidly — 
albeit accurately. Then re-read more closely and analyti- 
cally, as described in the section on Underscoring. This 
application of the whole method will result in less literal 
memorizing of assignments, for the pupil soon finds that by 
this method he can remember the important phases of the 
lesson. 

(d) Mnemonic Devices. One not infrequently meets in ad- 
vertisements the announcement of memory systems that 
guarantee to improve the memory and thereby to assure the 
individual a highly successful career. The best of these 
systems or schools employ mechanical devices of association, 
— nothing more^ — many of them artificial and complex, and 
others reasonably worth while. Mnemonics are simply elab- 
orate schemes of associating new with old or familiar experi- 
ence or by comparison and contrast surroimding things de- 
sired to be recalled with stimulative associations. 

For example, it is easy to remember that Leonardo da Vind 
belonged to the sixteenth century by noting that in the name 
Vinci VI stand for six and the " n " is an abbreviation of 
teenth. Learning vocabularies may be aided by the happy 
use of synonyms, as suggested by Loisette. 



212 



Supervised Study 



English 


Intermediates 


Latin 


Breast 


front — front view — aspect 


• 


fectus 


Suitor 


Prince Charming — wooed by proxy 


procus 


Man 


married man home 




homo 


Garret 


storeroom — grain store 




granana 
German 


Voice 


voice lozenges — stimulation 




stimme 


Threaten 


stinging words — stinging bee — 


drone 


drohen 


Potato 


dig up — remove — cart oflE 




kartoffd 

FftEMCB 


Tears 


hysterics — fainting fit — alarm 




larmes 


Star 


diamond — ball-dress — toilet 




etoile 


To speak 


converse — dispute — parley 




parler 



Another type of mnemonic associations is illustrated in the 
names of the brain lobes. 

Frontal — probable centers of reasoning — man's chief superiority 
Temporal — centers of hearing — oral — spoken to hear 

Occipital — centers of seeing — C (see) with 2 i's 

Parietal — centers of motion — Par-t = parting. 

A certain amount of exercise in mnemonics as a drill in 
memory work would not be out of place, providing teacher 
and pupil bear in mind that all such devices are simply 
additional aids to a more fimdamental and inherent associa- 
tion between facts. 

(3) Recall, An invaluable aid to effective memorizing is 
the practice of recalling immediately what has been read in 
each paragraph or on each page. If the pupil cannot recall 
a single fact or idea on the page he has just read, he may be 
sure that his thoughts have been wool gathering. Mere read- 
ing of words, with one's attention elsewhere, is obviously a 
sheer waste of time. There must be a first, clear, vivid im- 



Methods of Studying 213 

pression. The test of this first fundamental is made in the 
reviewing of what has just been read. 

Some pupils close the book (Giles foimd that 68 per cent of 
his pupils did so) and try to recall what they have just read ; 
others look off into space. At first it may seem to the pupil 
that slow progress is made by this method; but gradually 
the habit is formed, and the first reading of the lesson is 
accompanied by concentration and discrimination. At the 
close of his reading the pupil can then make an outline by the 
recall of what he has studied. If he underscores and writes 
brief sentences in the margin, these devices will help him to 
recall more accurately. 

(4) Studying Aloud. The form in which the lesson is to 
be recited should be practiced upon while studying. If, 
for example, the recitation deals with mathematics, most of 
the work will be done in writing, and this method is followed 
in prepaxing the problems. But in geometry, besides the 
figure, there is demonstration to be made aloud to teacher 
and class. By studying this demonstration aloud the pupil 
forms the reciting habit and gains in ease and confidence. To 
accustom oneself to the sound of one's voice while studying is 
valuable in every subject where verbal methods are employed. 

If it is impracticable to study aloud, moving the lips is a 
good substitute. Both methods tend to keep the mind from 
wandering. Attention is fixed more easily by these devices. 

9. Thinking. Investigations by Dr. Lida B. Earhart^ 
and Dr. Frederick Bonser,^ as well as treatises by Dr. John 

* " Systematic Study in the Elementary Grades," Teachers College Contribu^ 
Uons, No. 18. 

« " The Reasoning Ability of Children," Teachers College Contributions^ 
No. 37. 



^ 



214 Supervised Study 

Dewey * and Dr. I. E. Miller,* have shown not only that 
children do think but also how the thinking ability may be 
trained and applied in all school work. No one will deny 
that thinking is a fundamental huiman capacity. It is tacitly 
assimied to be so, especially in high school and college ; but 
Kttle time is devoted to the actual demonstration of what it 
means to think, and how pupils can become proficient in 
its technic. By some, thinking is regarded as an unusual 
ability, possessed by rare geniuses, who have never been 
instructed or trained in the meaning of its various factors, 
but who evolved their remarkable achievements under the 
dominance of rare insight. 

It will not be denied that philosophy, art, science, inven- 
tion, poetry, etc., exhibit imusual intellects and that, so far 
as records go, these distinguished thinkers never received 
formal training in their high art. But the lack of formal 
training in this branch of education may account for the rarity 
of the Kants, Michael Angelos, Huxleys, Edisons, and Mil- 
tons. If the schools in earlier days had trained the average 
boy and girl to think constructively, — just as it stressed 
mnemonics and formal discipline, — it is likely that civiliza- 
tion to-day would be even more progressive than it is. As the 
mass of society learns to think, its rarer minds — always 
to be expected — will loom even higher than they do. The 
hope of the race lies in an elevated universal knowledge of 
how to think, and, on the basis of this knowledge, an intelli- 
gent exercise of careful thought on the mighty problems of 
the hour. Doubtless the present war would not be possible 
if the great bulk of population in Eiurope had been trained to 
think on the profouind meaning of society, individual rights, 

^ How We Think, 19 lo. ' Psychology of Thinking, 



Methods of Studying 215 

wageSy and truth in its many reaches. And in our own coun- 
try, where the ideals of democracy and social efficiency are 
praised and sought, progress toward this realization will 
be retarded just so long as the average man and average 
woman are imskilled in the tools of thinking. There must 
always be the few to lead and the many to follow, but in the 
democratic r6gime the thinking many are privileged to elect 
as their leaders the trained few; and their choice of these 
leaders, whether it shall be safe or menacing, depends upon 
the ability to judge, to foresee, to evaluate issues and character. 

Studying of the finest type and as a preparation for sane 
and safe dtiz^iship must include — nay, more, must be 
dominated by — instruction and training in how to think in 
every subject of the school program. Education means ad- 
justment, and adjustment rests upon the ability of each indi- 
vidual to apply experience to new situations in the quickest, 
most effective, axid most permanent fashion. The high school 
pupil who enters the contest of a career will meet daily new 
problems (with some familiar phases, no doubt) whose solution 
will depend not only upon the direct application of knowledge 
acquired in school or elsewhere, but more often upon the reor- 
ganization of this knowledge, upon the selection of elements 
deemed especially suited to the need of the hour, and upon 
the determination of how the chosen elements are to be 
applied and, if necessary, what kind of additional factors are 
to be sought and where they are likely to be found. 

a. The Thinking Process, There is space here for little 
more than a sketch of what actually takes place when the 
pupil thinks. Let us suppose that he has been assigned a 
problem in EngUsh, — the description of a county fair. These 
fairs are common enough and are usually very much alike. 



2i6 Supervised Study 

The pupil, however, is expected to describe some fair that he 
has visited. A number of years ago the writer visited the 
first fair of this kind in Beltrami Coimty, Minnesota, held 
in the little village of Blackduck. The coimty is heavily 
timbered with a variety of trees, but mostly of pine, birch, 
and tamarack. Clearings in those days were comparatively 
few. Much labor in felling and hauling trees, removing 
stumps, draining the swampy land, building roads and homes 
was required. The black loam looked promising. Home- 
steaders and other settlers had dreams of farms and dairying 
as a consequence of this labor. And so, after a few years of 
persevering toil, the coimty had begun to yield its garden 
produce. The products, it seemed to some of the leaders, 
warranted as big an exhibit as money and time could aflford. 

The visitor to the Blackduck Fair may have come with little 
expectation. But he knew one thing. It was the first fair in that 
section of the state ; the forests were deep, dark, and miles long. 
Swamps were plentiful ; hired labor scarce ; roads few and mostly 
corduroy ; money or wealth not in circulation. And now he sees 
the long shelves of garden truck; wheat of superior excellence; 
grasses rich and plentiful; flowers, tinted almost in defiance of 
early frosts; live stock, sturdy and fine blooded. He examines 
the needlework of patient fingers that have also handled the rough 
tools of the clearing, but fingers deft with the artistry of needle and 
thread. He tastes the bread, the butter, the preserves, and the 
other cookeries bearing blue ribbons, — all this the result of patient 
toil and sacrifice of a people living in forests near the Canadian 
border. 

The pupil, let us suppose, was at this fair, and he now sets 
to work to describe it. What process of thinking must be 
followed? 



Methods of Studying 217 

The vivid picture of what he has seen forms the starting 
point. This is the raw material of his thought. 

Next is the selection from this material of certain more 
important exhibits not expected so far north and in an un- 
developed county, such as wheat, tea roses, red clover. 

The significance of these exhibits is judged by comparing 
them with those of other county fairs and also by the immense 
amoxmt of labor preliminary to the harvest or yield. The 
pupil draws on his memory of what he has seen and heard for 
these additional factors. 

But the fair means something for the future. By memory 
of what has been done and by imagination of what is coming, 
the pupil's description of the various exhibits becomes even 
more stimulating, for here are promises of what development 
of the coimtry will bring to pioneers and other settlers, and 
also to the general stores of supply of the whole country. 

Criticism may now be offered in the Ught of the conditions 
in the coimty; suggestions offered in the light of what is 
done at other similar fairs. 

What the pupil has done may be stated in a few words. He 
first of all received a clear first impression through seeing and 
hearing and perhaps touching. The first meaning of all he 
experienced was determined by similar experiences obtained 
at visits to other fairs or through reading and seeing pictures. 
Later upon interpreting what he has seen, the pupil resorts 
to his memory of what coimty fairs purpose to accomplish, — 
to show resources, progress, possibilities. Next he faces the 
more pressing problem of interpreting and judging the mean- 
ing of the fair for the improvement and settling of the country, 
and he selects certain advantageous products and indicates 
what is needed in roads, railroad transportation, cooperative 



2i8 Supervised Study 

farming, and scientific agriculture to achieve an even greater 
development. 

b. What Thinking Involves. Thinking depends, then, upon 
the same factors as are necessary in correct studying. This 
really means that thinking and studying are synon3mious: 
clear and accurate first impressions, organization by analy- 
sis, and later reorganization by association so far as demanded 
by the problem. Thinking is essentially a new organization 
of knowledge with additional facts sought for if needed. 
There can be no thinking without something to think with, — 
a store of knowledge. Herein, to repeat, lies the fuller signifi- 
cance of supplementary reading, observation, and experimen- 
tation in every subject of the program of studies. Obviously, 
memorizing has its important place, but it is only one step in 
the development of thinking. The ultimate habit of reflect- 
ing, weighing, and judging or seeing an issue and a need 
from several available angles aims at safety, wisdom, economy, 
and progress in social efficiency. 

lo. Application. In laboratory subjects there is a constant 
application of studying by the performing of experiments, 
makmg of furniture and dresses, drawing, modelmg, farming, 
etc. There is comparatively little difficulty in finding motiva- 
tion and vital reality in these courses. But the case is differ- 
ent with the abstract subjects, such as language, history, 
mathematics. What application is available here? The 
answer to this question is attempted in Part II. Suffice to 
anticipate by saying that application is considered from two 
angles : 

a. Doing as a Process of Learning, The common aphorism 
" Learn by doing " is no longer in need of defense. One 
finds the truth of this saying illustrated in practically every 



Methods of Studying 219 

school of the land. What the pupil does for himself under 
proper guidance creates skill and confidence. It establishes 
proper nerve connections and fixes habits. Supervised 
study stresses this fact with the accompanying caution that 
doing must not be impulsive, impatient, or wholly independ- 
ent. It is correct doing that coimts. In the learning process 
there are inevitably, as Book has shown, subtle errors creep- 
ing m, the correction of which retards progress and causes 
at times heavy discouragement. Unavoidable as many of 
these errors doubtless are, even imder the best of conditions, 
earnest effort on the part of the teacher must be put forth to 
forestall as many of the pupil's mistakes as possible. True 
as it is that doing strengthens impressions and thereby facili- 
tates memorizing, the even greater truth is that first impres- 
sions must be accurate and the application of them as correct 
as possible the first time. 

b. Doing as a Test of Learning. Application as a test of 
learning differs from the one preceding m the amount of 
proficiency available. The ability to drive a car, make a 
table, cultivate a good crop, sew a beautiful dress is the result 
of constant application and eventually establishes the end 
of learning. To imderstand the far-removed ultimate causes 
of the present European war ; to be able to describe moun- 
tain scenery, narrate an incident, argue a moot question ; to 
be skillful in measurements, in computation, etc., are tests of 
learning which in and of themselves augment further skill. 
Examinations with preliminary reviews are, therefore, helpful 
and necessary, when they test not merely details but the 
pupil's ability to handle the material in a practical and even 
original manner. The test of language is translation and 
reading; the test of mathematics, solving problems; the 



220 Supervised Study 

test of literature, not so much detailed historical knowledge 
as appreciation of the best and the ability to judge or criticize 
a piece of literature. 

General Summary 

The machinery of studying considered in these two chapters 
on Methods of Work indicates a complex skill in the handling 
of textbooks, summaries, imderscoring, outlining, notebooks, 
reports, supplementary reading, memorizing, and thinking with 
the constant checking of progress by careful application. 
These are fruitful topics, essential to democracy's high school, 
fimdamental not only in formal school work, but in private 
studying at any time. If the pupil becomes skillful in the 
use of these tools, he will be able to undertake new tasks alone 
and also to evolve methods of work which for him are pecul- 
iarly successful. After all, each individual must eventually 
fashion his own method of working, but he can do so more 
quickly and with less need of frequent revisions if he has a 
general conception of what should be involved in studying. 



i 



PART II 

CHAPTER IX 

SUPERVISING THE STUDY OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION 

It is generally believed among school people that no subject 
in the high school presents so many serious problems as does 
English. Perhaps no subject is so frequently attacked by re- 
formers and by foes of education. The efficiency of higher 
education is tested very largely by the graduates' ability to 
spell, to write a letter or report, and to converse or speak in 
public with ease and force. Pupils themselves are not enthu- 
siastic about the studying of their mother tongue. J. C. 
Brown and J. A. Minnick ^ foimd that English is among the 
subjects high school pupils prefer to drop either because they 
dislike it or because they deem it useless. Whatever the 
reasons may be for the present unrest in the English courses 
(and some of the reasons are quite apparent) no one will deny 
that English must remain in some respects the most important 
subject of the high school program, and that for this reason 
its teachers and friends must devise methods aiming at a 
soundly practical as well as cultural plan of development 
and study. 

^ " A Study of the Preferences of Secondary School Pupils for the Various 
Subjects and of the Ranking of the Various Subjects on the Basis of Utility as 
Judged by the Pupils," Educational Administration attd Supervisiony Vol. I, No. 
8, October, 1915, pp. 527-545. 

221 

s 



222 Supervised SPudy 

English, however, is made up of five or six problems, — 
namely, grammar, written composition, spelling, oral compo- 
sition, public speaking, and literature which includes oral 
reading. Each of these will now be discussed from the 
pupil's point of view as well as the teacher's in supervising 
study. 

I. Grammar 

Should the pupil be required to study formal grammar in 
high school ? May it not be true that much of the dislike 
toward EngUsh is due to the unbalanced emphasis on this 
particular phase of the course? These are two common ques- 
tions. Advocates of formal grammar argue that by this study 
the pupil is trained in accurate thinking and correct speaking. 
By habitually attending to the niceties of form, he grows to 
like and to speak with ease the English of educated people. 
In this way the pupil is able to coimteract the influences of an 
environment wherein the correct form of English is habitually 
disregarded and even scorned. Doubtless the mark of a truly 
educated man and woman is their easy observance of gram- 
matical form. '' He don't," " I done it," " It is me," " He 
done it good," etc., are marks of inferiority and often bar the 
users of them from desirable emplojmient and social coimec- 
tions. 

It is doubtful, however, if the study of formal grammar in 
high school will serve the end desired. Imitation is a powerful 
counterforce. Pupils may speak correctly in the school, 
but on the street or at home fall into the habits of their asso- 
ciates. Before reaching high school the pupil should have been 
thoroughly drilled in correct speaking. This is the period 
when habits of correct speech are most easily formed, not 



«( 



Supervising the Study of English Composition 223 

merely by book-study but by close observance of form in every 
subject. When one hears teachers m the schoolroom, in the 
corridorsy or elsewhere say " She don't," " It's me," " Sure, we 
done it," as the writer has heard them on several occasions, 
one should not wonder if children with the irresistible instinct 
of imitation speak as their teachers do. In high school the 
work in English should not be impeded by prolonged drill in 
grammar. Entrance upon high school courses should rest 
mainly on the elementary pupil's ability to speak and to 
write correctly the limited forms of his expression. In high 
school grammar must be less formal. 

Mr. Harold W. Gammans of the high school in Holyoke, 
Mass., writes of his method in this particular : ^ 

" The pupils had grammars but did not recite more than four or 
five lessons from them. I have never found formal grammar of 
much practical aid to the pupils in writing, if they have not learned 
it before they enter the secondary school. As care and interest in 
writing are developed in the pupils, they will write grammaticaUy 
in the secondary school." 

It may be added that the consensus of opinion at present is 
in favor of a brief and properly evaluated course in high school 
grammar with a small amoimt of attention to parsing and dia- 
graming; with careful avoidance of teaching English from 
the Latin point of view ; with the principal imit of instruction 
made up of sentence structure based on sentence analysis 
rather than artificial adherence to diagrams and agreements. 

I. How to study Grammar. A certain amount of time, 
however, should be spent on teaching pupils how to study 

» "The PupU who faik in Secondary School English: How to teach Him," 
Journal of Education, June 3, 19 15, p. 601. 



i 



224 Supervised Sttidy 

somewhat formally the simple essentials of grammatical con- 
struction. 

a. Formally. The analysis of the sentence is the basis of 
discriminate study in the selection of topic thought or in the 
summarizing of a paragraph. Neither of these functions of 
studying can be performed adequately unless the pupil imder- 
stands the meaning of each sentence. And this meaning rests, 
of course, upon a knowledge of how subject, verb, attribute, 
and modifiers are interrelated. The picking out of the back- 
bone of the sentence, short, long, simple, compoimd, complex, 
or greatly involved, need not become a lifeless pursuit, how- 
ever. Valuable exercises in such analyses should form part 
of the work in every English course, increasing in difficulty 
with each year. 

Sentences, for example, might be selected from newspaper 
editorials or news items, from magazmes, modem novels, law 
cases, text-books in subjects other than English. Diagraming 
should be avoided as long as possible, and if deemed necessary, 
should employ the Brace Outline referred to on page 182. 
This is simple and clear, and, furthermore, relates sentence 
analysis to outlining or analysis on a larger scale. Both are 
a part of the process of thinking. 

It is hardly necessary to require the pupils to copy these 
analyses. Most of the work should be done in the class on 
the blackboard or, when feasible, by discussion based on the 
textbook of the class. One pupil reads his analysis, while 
others follow by attending to their books. Writing in this 
part of the work should be avoided as much as possible. No 
small amount of dislike toward English is due to the excessive 
requirements of writing. 

Sentence structure may be studied also by building or ex- 




Supervising the StiMy of English Composition 225 

ponding simple sentences into complex or compound ; chang- 
ing order of expression ; studying different ways of expressing 
similar ideas as found in a number of authors. One pupil, 
for example, might be given the assignment to write a descrip- 
tion of a battle. Others would have assignments in modem 
war correspondence, Victor Hugo's Battle of Waterloo, Louisa 
Miihlbach's description of Frederick the Great's campaign in 
Silida, etc. Sentence forms in the writings of Henry James, 
James Huneker, Henry van Dyke, Ernest Poole, Hawthorne, 
Dickens, and Scott could be studied by this comparative 
method with constant application by the pupil in sentence 
structure and sentence analysis. 

Gammons in the study cited accomplished laudable results 
by requiring the pupils to use a simple sentence or a sentence 
of not over two clauses. Only these two kinds of sentences 
were permitted, and day after day he drilled them in the dis- 
criminate use of these forms. He insisted, also, that the 
pupils should read their compositions aloud by themselves at 
home and notice if word groups beginning with a capital letter 
and ending with a period were at all sensible. Nothing more 
was required. By listening to the natural division of the 
sentence into pauses, they were trained to place commas at 
such pauses. No rules of punctuation were taught. Words 
and phrases out of their natural order were referred to in class 
as requiring commas before and after. He did hot insist on 
paragraphing at first. If there were two or more quite evident 
groups of thought in a composition read aloud to the class, 
he asked how many paragraphs there should be. Paragraph- 
ing, he foimd, developed fairly well by this method. 

b. Incidentally and at Home. Grammatical form should re- 
ceive attention as part of the study of literature and composi- 

i 



226 Supervised Study 

tion, oral and written. Doubtless the time will come when 
pupils will be marked on their correctness of speaking and 
writing everywhere during their enrolhnent in the school. 
Superintendent Alderman's extension of school credits for 
home work, with careful listing of credit values for the differ- 
ent kinds of home work, may some day include credits in school 
for correct speaking at home, during meals, before the hearth, 
in Sunday school, etc. Lists of mistakes to avoid, with demerits 
opposite each, could be used just as practically as the lists of 
domestic, industrial, and commercial tasks out of school hours. 
Such a list would have a favorable influence on all the members 
of the home. Not until grammar comes to mean more than 
rules (many of them relics of English different from that of 
to-day), and receives recognition as a practical, everyday, and 
generally observed mark of education during the pupil's entire 
school career in and out of school, can serious attention to its 
evaluated details result in correct speaking and writing. In 
other words, every teacher and parent should share the re- 
sponsibility of helping the pupil to form habits of correct 
speaking and writing. It is not the English teacher's task 
alone. Her finest work is easily frustrated by laxness in other 
subjects and at home. Correct usage in English courses does 
not automatically spread over into other courses. It spreads 
only by being directed all along the line. 

n. Composition 

The question needs to be asked. What is the specific aim 
of instruction in writing? It seems an absurdly useless ques- 
tion. Everybody knows why composition is taught. But the 
cynic is at hand with chilling insistence on conclusive evi- 
dence. If we project the point of view far beyond the higb 



k 



Supervising the Study of English Composition 227 

school years, the question really amounts to this : What is the 
ultimate and practical purpose of high school training in com- 
position? The answer to this question must be considered 
from two points of view. 

A. Written Composition, i. Studying Theme Writing. 
Theme work is so deeply intrenched in the English courses 
that it occupies the bulk of the teacher's and pupil's time. 
Its purpose is obvious, — to teach pupils how to write. Es- 
says or themes are therefore assiduously studied, reams of 
paper covered with thousands of words, hours of patient or 
impatient toil consimied by the pupil writing and by the 
teacher editing during four years of high school and four 
years of college. Some teachers of English have invented long 
series of symbols or signs to be used in the red-ink scrutiny of 
these compositions. Rimning through all of this laboratory 
and factory process of producing skill in writing there is 
doubtless an honest faith that all of this does accomplish re- 
sults or that it is the only means whereby writing eflBLciency 
can be achieved. In the light of the ultimate and legitimately 
practical need of skill in composition, some important factors 
should be noted. 

a. Habits of Writing are Specific^ not General. The pupil's 
ultimate need of proficiency in writing English must be a 
guiding principle in this part of his studying. Will he ever 
need to write essays after he leaves school? Will the average 
individual do very much writing aside from correspondence? 
It is assimied that theme work in English will develop style 
of fluency in writing at large ; but style is specific, i,e,, it con- 
forms to the character or nature of the theme being developed. 
The essay is valuable for the future essayist, not for the busi- 
ness man or even the professional man. 



/ 



228 Supervised Study 

AbiKty to write in English courses does not necessarily 
spread over into power of fluent or even accurate expression 
in history or physics. These have a style of their own. 
Neither does a carefully written essay mean that the pupil 
will learn thereby to speak more easily and correctly. The two 
mental processes are quite different and must be carefully 
developed in their respective fields. Composition, to prove 
ultimately effective, should deal in the high school with 
forms of expression and characteristics of style peculiar 
to the kind of writing used. Motivation becomes easier 
from this point of view. Interest is more likely to be 
sustained imder this differentiated method of composition 
work. 

6. Fluency and Forcefulness of Expression depend upon having 
Something to Say. The principal reason for the lack of transfer 
of ability to write lies in the pupil's paucity of ideas or knowl- 
edge in particular subjects. However well he may be able to 
write in English courses, his expression or style in history, 
science, civics, etc., will be halting if he does not have a rich 
backgroimd or a well-organized group of facts in these sub- 
jects. Language is a vehicle of thought and moves easily 
only when concepts are large and rich. To be proficient in 
expression the pupil, therefore, needs training in expression in 
every subject he studies. 

Themes selected from the pupil's other courses as part 
of the assignments in English work, and exercises in writ- 
ing answers to questions in these courses as part of his 
training in composition, are effective means of bringing this 
about. 

c. Coherence and Balanced Expression are determined by Habits 
of Correct Thinking, The attempt to superimpose forms of 



^ 



Supervising the Stttdy of English Composition 229 

accurate expression on a habitually careless or loose manner of 
thinking must prove a failure. The new forms of expression 
have not become habits ; whereas the manner of thinking has 
long been fixed as a habit of mind and will proceed automati- 
cally, while the newer facts of the English course will be less 
likely to find ready expression. This results in an awkward 
and halting style, however proficient the pupil may be in exer- 
cises of English Composition. 

d. Interest in the themes for their own sake wiU vitalize the 
pupil's work in written compositions. In these days of world 
conflict ; of discoveries in archaeology and science ; of inven- 
tions ; of political, economic, social, educational, and religious 
reforms ; of civic improvements such as good road movements, 
rural transformations, and cities beautiful, it ought to be easy 
to find large themes both entertaining and practical. The 
world of sport, travel, industry, music, and literature is replete 
with life subjects that appeal to the pupil's social instincts. 
In the selection of themes it is necessary to leave the beaten 
path and travel less frequented but often more fascinating 
roads. Pupils like to write about subjects that concern their 
own lives. The adolescent is intensely interested in himself 
and indeed has a right to be, for this is fundamental in the 
imfolding of his individuality. 

2. Diversified Forms of Written Composition. The recent 
attempts of Hillegas ^ and Ballou ^ to measure the products of 
composition include the usual divisions of writing into descrip- 
tion, narration, exposition, and argimientation. Each of these 
forms is distinct from the others and must be studied by a 
method peculiar to itself. Proficiency in the writing of one 

1 Composition ScalCf Teachers College Publications. 
* Harvard-Newton Composition Scale^ Cambridge Press. 



/ 



230 Supervised Sttuiy 

does not necessarily mean skill in handling the others. A few 
simple rules, briefly stated, for the studying of each of these 
forms have been foimd helpful. 

a. How to study Narration. 

Get a perspective of the story ; i.e., know what the end is 
to be and work consistently toward this end. 

In short narratives, such as are likely to be written in high 
school, practice balancing the story ; i.e., avoid imnecessary 
details, wholly irrelevant material, and long, flowery descrip- 
tions. 

Select a single incident and surround it with a natural, 
simple setting. 

Choose a convenient point of view, telling the story in the 
words of some character or in the third person. 

Limit yourself for the sake of conciseness (preserving ease 
of expression) to a certain number of words or so many sheets 
of paper. Reporters, for example, are allowed so much space 
for a " story." Drill in this will eventually eliminate imim- 
portant details and showy writing. 

Narrate something that you are familiar with, however 
commonplace, and try to give it a fresh setting. Avoid 
themes that are beyond your present stage of development; 
i.e., tell about something interesting to you personally. 

Practice narration in letter form, telling a real friend the 
latest news and some special incident of more than usual in- 
terest to both of you. 

Tell the story as you know it ; avoid copying from others, 
but use models, changing these from time to time, .always 
bearing in mind that your point of view, your mode of expres- 
sion will give swing and music to the tale ; whereas, in another's 
language, it may be too evidently not your own or may ap- 




Supervising the Study of English Composition 231 

pear stilted when mixed with your own attempts. Write as 
you fed regardless of finished form. 

Seek to adapt your style to the temper of the incident — 
quick action in short sentences or crisp phrases ; slower move- 
ments in longer rhythm. 

Use simple words, preferably those of one or two syllables ; 
avoid many adjectives, adverbs, and conjimctions. 

Analyze the structure of short stories for narrative form. 

b. How to study Description, 

Describe something simple at first ; attempt only the pos- 
sible. 

Determine upon a point of view. Landscape changes its 
appearance according to one's point of view. Mountain scen- 
ery looks different from the observation car than from the en- 
gineer's cab. Be true to what you see from where you are. 

Points of view should change as in moving pictures : first a 
broad panorama ; then a " close up " of some important detail. 

Be consistent with the natural emotional feelings at the 
time and place of your description. Things look different 
in a gloomy ravine from what they do on a sunny ocean beach. 
Your mood affects what you describe. 

Use the imaginative and suggestive method ; i,e,, avoid ex- 
cess of detail — let the reader see for himself what you merely 
suggest. Practice flash descriptions of important details. 

Work toward a climax. Reserve the most striking point 
in your description imtil the last few sentences. 

Contrast, bold or blended, is effective. Just as in a picture 
the artist seeks to gain contrast by high lights and shadows, 
so in description vividness is realized by direct and distinct 
contrast or by a quieter blending and overlapping of differences. 

Description by behavior is likewise a good exercise. What 



232 Supervised Study 

effect does a scene, a person, a series of incidents have on the 
observer ? 

Visit an art gallery or study an illustration and describe 
what you see. Observe the effect that the description has on 
others. Do they see the picture ? 

Practice describing the scenes along the way to and from 
school, or something unusual you have seen. Note the effect 
of your description on others. Do you hold their attention? 

Use as few words as possible and make each word coimt. 
Avoid flowery description. 

c. How to study Exposition or Explanatory Writing, Prob- 
ably the pupil will have more need of this and the following 
form than of the two preceding, for in the busy world of men 
there is daily need of explaining new things or acts performed, 
such as the working of machinery, the meaning of a new plan 
or a new movement, etc. In commimity civics, for example, 
and in politics there is constant need of explanations and argu- 
ments. The following suggestions for studying will aid the 
pupil in making his work definite. 

Exposition must be clear. An explanation that needs to 
be explained is hardly an explanation at all. The language 
must be simple and easily understood. 

The process of explanation or exposition must be broken 
up into steps, each logically related to the other and all pre- 
senting a coherent, consistent analysis of the thing being ex- 
plained. This has already been discussed imder Outlines. 

Exposition depends also upon careful definitions. To de- 
fine words or terms concisely and yet with a proper limiting 
of the meaning requires long practice. Pupils should study 
defining in their own language the experiences they acquire 
day by day. 



\ 



Supervising the Stttdy of English Composition :233 

Study headlines in newspapers, titles of chapters, subjects 
of lectures, advertisements and announcements for striking 
and terse simmM,ries that are often vividly explanatory. Prac- 
tice writing such headlines. School and class mottoes arie 
forms of the same type of explanation. 

Illustrate as often as possible by concrete cases analogies, 
comparisons, and contrasts selected from your own, but pref- 
erably from the auditor's experience. Diagrams, photographs, 
or drawings are serviceable in this connection. 

Review your course without reference to book or notes, and 
write an exposition of some part of the subject. Practice com- 
menting on common day issues and note what your weaknesses 
are in such efforts. 

Study typical expositions for the author's method of begin- 
ning, classifying, developing, and ending his elaborate un- 
folding of the theme. 

d. How to study Argumentation, Pupils are more familiar 
with this kind of written composition under the term "de- 
bating." The difference between this and the preceding form 
lies chiefly in the piupose of each. Exposition explains some- 
thing that the reader is quite willing to accept as true, but ar- 
gumentation sets out to convince him by carefully presented 
points of facts that it must be true. The two types are not 
mutually exclusive, but overlap at many places. A few funda- 
mental rules should be observed. 

State clearly in the form of a simple declarative sentence the 
proposition to be proved. " Preparedness is necessary for 
the future peace and prosperity of America " is a frequently 
heard statement in these days. It sets forth clearly something 
that is being widely debated and discussed. 

Select arguments in the brief that can be backed up by evi- 



234 Supervised Study 

dence and authority. In arguing for reforms of any kind al- 
ways consider well whether the plan you propose is practicable. 
Will it work ? is a t j^ical American rebuttal to many specious 
arguments. Weigh the issues involved. 

Prepare a brief or elaborate outline of the arguments to be 
followed. A brief consists of complete sentence points rather 
than abbreviated statements employed in the usual outline. 
Each subpoint should support the main head of which it is a 
part and all main points should consistently support the orig- 
inal proposition. The following is a typical form : 

Brief Proper 

I. Football is good for the players physically, for 

A. It keeps the man out in the open air, for 

(i) They spend every afternoon at the athletic fidd. 

B. It requires a healthful diet, for 

(i) The athlete cannot eat pastry, and 
(2) He cannot eat between m^als. 

C. It develops the muscles, for 

(i) The variety of plays develops the whole body, 
n. It is good for the players mentally, for 

A. It makes men think quickly, for 

(i) Unexpected plays are always happening. 

B. It makes the men resourceful, for 
(i) They need variety of plays, and 

(2) They need skill in each separate man. 
in. It is good for the players morally, for 

A. It develops courage, for 
(i) It is a dangerous game. 

B. It teaches self-control, for 

(i) A man must not be offside, and 
(2) A man must obey the umpire. 



Supervising the Study of English Composition 235 

Conclusion 

Since football helps the players physically, mentally, and morally, 
it is a good thing and should be encouraged.^ 

In less formal argumentation there is no need of a brief. 
An editorial or article aiming to persuade the reader presents 
a series of carefully selected reasons for supporting this or that 
project. The pupil should study editorial writing in news- 
papers or magazines. 

3. Supervising the Written Composition Work. The fore- 
going hints on how to study the four types of composition are 
merely suggestive of the kind of guidance that pupils need in 
this branch of their work. This forms part of the program of 
supervised study of English. A few important additional 
suggestions are necessary. 

a. There should be a minimum amount of written work. The 
bane of teachers and pupils is writing. A certain amount is 
necessary, but Lounsbury ^ has well said : 

" I am thoroughly convinced that altogether undue importance is 
attached to exercises in English Composition, especially compulsory 
exercises ; that the benefits to be derived from the general practice 
schools is vastly overrated ; that the criticism of themes, even when 
it is fully competent, is, in the majority of cases, of little value to 
the recipient ; that in a large number of instances the criticism is 
and must be more or less incompetent ; and that when the correc- 
tions which are made are made inefficiently and unintelligently as 
is too often the case, the results are distinctly more harmful than 
helpful." 

1 Canby and others, English Composition in Theory and Practice , pp. 175-176. 
*" Compulsory Composition in Colleges," Harper's Magazine, November, 
191 1, Vol. CXXm, pp. 866-880, or Judd, op, cit., pp. 171-172. 



236 Supervised Study 

b, " Editing to kill " and the " tragedy of red ink " are unwise 
means of developing style. Many English teachers allow the 
pupils for a month or more to write freely, idiomatically — 
even with slang — in order to encourage ease of egression. 
Gradually correction of mistakes is introduced, but not by 
covering the composition with red ink. Gammans ^ refers to 
his method : 

*' I read the daily compositions of every pupil to the class, mak- 
ing corrections as forcibly as possible. Each pupil heard about his 
own particular errors or merits and those of the other members of 
the class. He seldom, however, saw his errors as no papers were 
handed back to him after the first few days. I think this is a point 
which all teachers should consider. I have not been able to see 
that any pupils in secondary schools and in the freshman year of 
college receive much benefit from having their exercises returned 
to them with their mistakes underUned to be corrected, or corrected 
by the teacher. Its usual effect on the pupil who needs correction 
and help is to discourage, puzzle, and bore him. I attempted to 
be kind in making these corrections before the class and used no 



sarcasm." 



c. Reading the best compositions before the class, school, 
patron's leagues, or publishing them in local newspapers or 
in the school magazine provides the wholesome stimulus of an 
audience. 

d. A " standing " assignment^ consisting of a large problem 
to investigate and report on from time to time, adds to the prac- 
tical value of composition work. Such problems are listed 
under "How to Study Civics." 

e. To develop style requires many years. Only a little can be 
accomplished each term or each year. For this reason there 

1 Op. dt. 



Supervising the Study of English Composition 237 

should be a stressing of certain fundamental factors in any 
kind of writing; for example, quick preparedness to write, 
systematic collection of material, automatizing of simplicity, 
clearness, conciseness. The pupil should be trained to write 
minutes of meetings in correct form, letters of various kinds, 
social and business. The more elaborate and vocational kinds 
of writing should be introduced when the pupils are reason- 
ably certain of their choice of career, but there are forms of 
writing everybody should know, such as letters, orders, news 
items for publication, directions to friends coming on a visit 
but unacquainted with routes and locality. In a word, the 
pupil should be trained in the kind of writing that belongs to 
efficient citizenship. Sentence structure, pimctuation, and the 
like can be developed through these media just as well as by 
means of the ordinary theme work. 

/. Mistakes calling for special attention should be reduced 
to a minimum. Throughout the four years or six years of the 
high school period the following common mistakes made by 
pupils should receive careful notice by a spiral method, — 
each year's work embracing drill in all of them but with lessen- 
ing amoimt throughout the years, except when the tenacity 
of these faults demands special drill. But all such drill should 
take place in the quiet of the personal supervision between 
teacher and each pupil. 

Common Mistakes in English 

1. Diction. 6. Agreement between subject 

2. Locution. and predicate. 

3. Slang. 7. Adjective for adverb and mce 

4. Colloquialism. versa. 

5. Case. 8. Misuse of shall and wiU. 



I 



238 Supervised Sttuiy 

9. Sequence of tenses. 14. Imagery. 

10. Participles. 15. Euphony. 

11. Unity. 16. Form of discourse. 

12. Coherence. 17. Ambiguity. 

13. Figures of speech. 18. Spelling. 

It will be agreed that here is a large program. To cover all 
of these errors in one year and at the same time sustain inter- 
est is a comprehensive and discouraging task. It will be more 
feasible to select the mistakes most common and supervise 
* the study of their corrections. 

g. Spelling should be studied mainly by drill in writing, pref- 
erably in sentence form rather than in word lists. The old- 
time spelling bee was unquestionably socially very important. 
The custom, however, of " spelling down " by means of hard 
words and hailing the victor as the best speller had its serious 
faults. The chief of these ignored the law that practice should 
follow as nearly as possible the channel of application and 
should have, as nearly as possible, a setting similar to that of 
the habit applied. Spelling is a part of written composition, 
and only rarely, as in dictation, is it employed orally. Indi- 
viduals who write correctly often find it difficult to spell orally 
quite common words. Another mistake of the spelling bee 
was the testing of spelling ability by long and unusual words. 
There is little need of such knowledge. Supervising the 
study of correct spelling of words in daily usage is all the 
teacher should aim to accomplish. 

B. Oral Composition. The emphasis long placed on 
written work in English has resulted in judging oral work as of 
secondary importance. Or, if not deemed of secondary im- 
portance, the methods of declamations and elocution have 
lowered it, in the opinion of the boys, especially, into a subject 



k 



Supervising the Study of English Composition 239 

suited only for girls. Oral composition has been limited to 
" public speaking " courses with the familiar and distressing 
exhibitions of school oratory and other forms of elocution. 
It is unfortunate, to say the least, that oral composition has 
not received the careful organization and method of teaching 
assigned written work. Most people speak more than they 
write, and many of them succeed or fail, largely because of 
skill or defects in ordinary conversation. Important as it is 
for individuals to be able to speak in public, it is much more 
important that they understand the art and technic of con- 
versation or private speaking. It will not be out of place, 
therefore, to consider in this chapter some of the factors that 
should be noted in teaching pupils how to study oral composi- 
tion. 

I. How to study Oral Composition. As already indicated, 
oral discourse falls naturally into two divisions: (a) con- 
versation and discussion; (b) public speaking which em- 
braces addresses, after-dinner speaking, debates, and artistic 
reading. 

a. Conversation and Discussion. One hears it often stated 
that conversationalists are bom, not made. Loose generaliza- 
tions of this sort based on the belief that achievements in any 
field are possible only to those whom the gods favor, result in 
extended mediocrity among the majority who, possessing less 
talent, could make praiseworthy use of their powers by careful 
training. To converse well involves among others the follow- 
ing factors : 

(i) Broad General Knowledge, Conversation must have a 
common groimd. Each partner in the conversation must 
know something of what the other is speaking about. The 
broader one's culture, acquired through reading, observation, 



i 



240 Supervised Stvdy 

or travel, the easier does it become to meet people of walks of 
life different from our own and to establish lines of intercourse 
that eventually lead to intimacy or friendship. The high 
school pupil, therefore, should be required to read newspapers 
every day, magazines, and the books generally read, so that he 
may have opinions on the facts or events discussed by the 
average individual. Visiting local industries and points of 
interest, noting with the reporter's — not the gossip's — keen 
sense of news, and appreciating the human interest in his 
environment wiU gradually enrich his store of common in- 
formation. 

(2) Special Knowledge, Each individual has, or should 
have, his own particular interests about which he should be 
able to talk with enthusiasm, conviction, and himian appeal. 
Most of us are afraid of being enthusiastic ; it seems to lack 
dignity, but beneath intellectual refinement and conventional 
reserve there run the deep torrents of emotion that help to 
turn the wheels of progress, economically and socially. Dare 
to be original, — to be just different enough from other people 
to define the limits between them and you. This need not 
lead to the free-lance attitude or to the pseudo-Bohemian dis- 
regard of necessary conformity to group standards. Hi^ 
school pupils should be encouraged to analyze what they like in 
others. This at first may be a difficult undertaking, but much 
of the difficulty is due to habitual neglect of this important 
treatment of acquaintances and friends. 

Each pupil should study or do something that eventually 
develops into either expertness or a certain amount of emi- 
nence, locally at least. He should be encouraged to speak 
about this chief interest at a social hour. One of the five 
hours each week during the four years that English teachers 



Supervising the Sttuly of English Composition 241 

rightly insist upon having, might well be devoted to such class 
conversations. 

(3) Good Listening. The art of listening is just as important 
as that of speaking. The good listener pays close attention 
to what the other is saying, even though it may be somewhat 
boresome. How often one finds people who are eager to talk, 
but unpatient, mmd-wandering, indifferent while others speak. 
Half the battle in good conversation is to have an interested 
auditor whose facial expression and whole attitude respond 
to the rhythm, the thought, the intensity, or the mood of our 
remarks. The sjmipathetic listener who appreciates our 
points of view patiently waits for his time to speak, tactfully 
differs from our own opinions, and expresses in look or word 
praise without inordinate flattery, lubricates the wheels of 
verbal intercourse and not infrequently helps to evolve a bril- 
liant conversationalist. 

(4) Beginning and Closing a Conversation, Most of us be- 
gin with the weather. It has common interest. It is an easy 
preliminary to more vital topics. We ask about each other's 
health and less private experiences, and then launch out into 
a dialogue about some topic of mutual interest. The writer 
knows a brilliant conversationalist who rarely begins to talk 
about the weather. He makes it a point to select, after the 
first greeting, some beautiful picture or ornament in the room, 
and then leads the conversation into channels of art, and always 
seeks to leave some cheerful thought that makes his call an 
angel visit indeed. Others have seen something interesting or 
have heard something amusing that by a little skillful resetting 
dovetails easily in the other's life. A good story, a witty re- 
mark, an opinion on the leading news item of the day, a com- 
pliment on the appearance of the neighborhood, the children 



/ 



/' 



242 Supervised Study 

(a splendid starting point in families with children), etc., are 
other means of beginning a conversation. 

In high school part of the English course might well deal with 
the various ways of beginning and closing conversations. We 
struggle over these problems in letter writing and in general 
composition. The good conversationalist makes a study of the 
personal likes and activities of other people. Conversation 
does not just happen. It is well prepared for, and after a time 
becomes easy and attractive. 

(s) The A Uitude in Conversation. Should we be very formal, 
i,e,, observe in detail a stiff, labored, technical attitude? 
Again, the caller must not allow conventionality on the one 
hand or overfamiliarity on the other to destroy individuality. 
We naturally stand in awe before great persons and usually 
should wait for them to direct the conversation. But it 
may happen that the great person is unable to adapt 
himself easily, and that, therefore, his embarrassment spoils 
what ought to be a most helpful meeting. Under such 
circumstances others should tactfully lead the conversa- 
tion, remembering that great people are very human and 
not at all indifferent to the sidelights on life led by their 
fellow men. 

The high school pupil should study correct form of social 
intercourse, the niceties of courteous behavior, and the cus- 
toms of different classes of society. Knowing them, he will 
be able to adapt himself more easily to the customary restraints 
of the occasion. A brief story to the point, a little dash of 
comment on a matter of public interest, a friendly solicitude 
for the other's success, etc., — these little personal expressions 
can be made naturally and effectively even imder the restric- 
tions of social form. 



Supervising the Stvdy of English Composition 243 

(6) The Voice in Conversation. Well modulated, clear, 
moderately slow, avoiding shrill pitch, or very loud speaking 
are a few of the important things to notice in the conversational 
voice. Avoid the affected accents, but speak pleasantly in a 
natural voice. Be yourself, not somebody whose voice you 
think very beautiful, but which becomes very imattractive 
when imitated by others without careful training. 

(7) Models of Conversation. Read conversations in biog- 
raphy and the best fiction. 

The foregoing suggestions apply in general to discussions. 
Courteous deference to others while they are speaking, ease, 
human interest, definiteness, general information, together 
with a certain amoxmt of expertness or exact information, are 
essential in any discussion of a more private character. 

6. Public Speaking. The former phase of oral composition 
is the more important for most people. But no one is wholly 
barred from the occasional invitation to speak in public. Ordi- 
narily it is assumed that professional speakers, such as lawyers, 
ministers, lecturers, and political candidates are the only ones 
who should know the " tricks of oratory." In a democracy, 
however, where each citizen has a voice and a vote in the 
government, he should be able to use the privilege of free 
speech to the best advantage. For this reason too much em- 
phasis cannot be placed on the importance of public speaking 
as a part of the English courses in high school. 

(i) After-dinner Speaking. Many a good banquet has been 
lamentably spoiled by unskilled after-dinner speakers. The 
reason for the custom of indulging in this frequently doubtful 
practice lies mainly in the fact that after an individual has 
been well fed the resulting state of euphoria or well-being 
makes him more easily receptive to new ideas or to plan diffi- 



244 Supervised Stvdy 

cult undertakings. It is a social hour, and man is kindly 
disposed when seated with his fellows around the festal board. 
A good after-dinner speech, a course in the " feast of reason," 
is a fitting supplement to the material part of the hour. 
The occasion only rarely serves for an elaborate presentation 
of policies or projects. Usually the after-dinner speech is 
made up of felicitations, a good story, a brief eulogy (if oc- 
casion so requires), and a line or two of more serious matter. 
High school pupils, in connection with domestic science 
courses, might well be trained in this art at an occasional 
banquet served by the class in domestic science. They should 
observe the following rules in studying after-dinner speeches : 

Read model after-dinner speeches by Chauncey Depew, Simeon 
Ford, and others. 

Make the speeches appropriate to the occasion of the banquet. 

They should be brief, — rarely more than five minutes 
unless the speaker is the only one and has been invited to speak on 
an important subject at this occasion. 

A brief , pointed story is always in place and often is sufficient. 

Avoid flowery language, bombastic oratory, extravagant praise, 
and unbalanced personal pledges that commit one either beyond 
reasonable realization or to sham and retrenching. 

The toastmaster should be addressed first and then the guest of 
honor if there is one. 

(2) Addresses, It is impossible here to discuss in detail 
the principles of preparing and delivering addresses. The 
high school pupil, however, will find it profitable in studying 
this topic to note the following principles : 

An address is prepared for many people and therefore should 
seek to interest not only the particular audience hearing it, but 
certain individuals in the audience. 



i 



Supervising the Study of English Composition 245 

Always speak to one person in the crowd. Aim to attract him, 
to convince him. 

Begin the address, if possible, with a reference to some 
incident of common interest to your audience. Begin where your 
audience is and lead them to where you are, 

DeUvery should be easy, not artificial. The following lines are 
often quoted as suggestive of a psychological approach : 

''Begin low. 
Proceed slow, 
Rise higher, 
Take fire, 

When most impressed, 
Be self-possessed, 
To spirit wed form. 
Sit down in a storm.'* 

The style of delivery developed in debating societies or by some 
teachers of elocution is most imfortunate. The author saw a 
ludicrous and at the same time pathetic illustration of this in the 
effort of a university graduate. He appeared before a large body 
of educators to present a very important organization. His face 
was flushed; he assumed the hackneyed posture of right foot 
forward, straight back, head up, hands at fixed angles grasping his 
notes. His opening sentences echoed the bombastic thunderings 
of an oratorical giant. For nearly ten minutes he continued in 
this vein and then quite unexpectedly descended to the realm of 
human discourse, continued in an earnest, rather informal manner, 
and finished his presentation with considerable force. 

The finished orator with polish, correct gestures, fine modulation 
of voice, and also something worth sa)dng is always an attraction. 
But what is needed by the average citizen who does not aim to be 
a professional speaker is something less technical than this. He 
needs a strong, well-controlled voice, simple, forceful language. 



246 Supervised Study 

appropriate gestures, and the knack of clinching a statement with 
an apt illustration. 

Gestures are as much a form of language as are speaking and writ- 
ing. The fist shaken in the presence of another is well imder- 
stood; the pointing finger, sweeping arm,, shrug of the shoulders, 
wave of the hand, extension of the arms sUghtly bent, the tense 
projection of the arm with hand at right angles and palm away 
from the speaker are forceful and unmistakable. To ignore the 
training of gestures is a serious defect in most effective public 
speaking. What should be avoided is that finesse and overdeUcacy 
of facial expression and posture that very properly belong to schools 
of expression or courses of artistic reading, but not to a general 
course in pubUc speaking as here defined. There is considerable 
truth in the statement that enthusiasm and earnestness employ 
correct gestures almost instinctively. To overemphasize gestures 
may lead the attention away from the subject matter of the speech 
to the form of it, and this results in artificial deUvery. 

At first it is important to require pupils to write and to 
memorize their speeches, but very early they should be permitted 
to use only notes, and later to speak without any notes at all. It 
should be noted, however, that speaking from a few notes is cus- 
tomary even among the most celebrated orators. A small piece 
of paper with the main points and other reminders is not a serious 
hindrance. 

(3) Haw to prepare and use Notes in Public Speaking. The 
notes should be brief and clearly written; each point well 
separated from the others ; a small card about 2 X 3 is con- 
venient, with writing on one side only. If there are about ten 
paragraphs in the speech, it is helpful to note the opening line 
of each, or the main subject of each. 

The following notes on The Life of the Lumberjack illustrates 
the principles set forth : 



% 



Supervising the Sttcdy of English Composition 247 

I. Instinctive interests in wild life — illustrated in fiction. 
n. Description of the country. 

230 miles north of Minneapolis ; 150 miles west of Duluth. 
Long winters. In 1900 unbroken wilderness. 
m. The home of the wandering lumberjack. 
50,000 of them. 

What is a lumberjack? Story of stranger. 
IV. The past life of the average lumberjack. 
V. Description of his life. 

1. Trip to camp ; the forest ; lost in snowstorm. 

2. At the camp — the bull-cook ; cookie, etc. 

3. Supper in a lonely cabin. 
VI. The lumberjack in town. 

1. Life in saloons. 

2. Hospital. 

3. Emplojnnent agencies. 

VII. The lumberjack and modem industry. 

1. The lumber industry. 

2. Indian in woods. 

3. Adventure with wild animals. 

In using the notes the speaker should seek to include more 
than one line at a time. While speaking on one point glance 
at the card to ascertain what comes next. This does away 
with the awkward pause while the speaker is looking for his 
next point. The notes should be as inconspicuous as possible. 
If there is no reading desk available, the card should be held 
in the left hand, the right, as a rule, being employed in gestures. 

c. Debating. Usually this is cared for in debating societies, 
and teachers are called upon for references, arguments, briefs, 
etc. The work is often done haphazardly. There are books 
a-plenty on debating, also pamphlets with topics and argu- 
ments and rules of debating. It is assumed in this chapter 



248 Supervised Sttuly 

that debating belongs to the English courses as a vital part 
of the classroom work, necessitating the teacher's supervision 
from beginning to end. A few suggestions are important. 

Debating is an exercise in reasoning. A simple study of rudi- 
mentary logic would be helpful. The fallacy of an opponent's 
argument can then be challenged. 

Arguments should be based on fact not mere opinion. 

Facts should be weighed by conditions that caused them. 

Sources should be carefully evaluated and accurately stated or 
readily available when needed. 

The topic must be very closely defined, and all argimients must 
deal with the topic as defined. 

The practice of writing briefs (discussed on page 234) is im- 
portant for clear, logical, and fairly complete presentation of 
arguments. 

Pupils should be assigned lessons in well-known debates and 
practice constructing their debates in agreement with the models 
selected. 

At first it is necessary for the pupil to memorize the opening 
speeches, but the aim should be to develop fluent and logical extem- 
poraneous speaking. This requires confidence, much knowledge, 
organization, and a fairly rich vocabulary. Speaking extempo- 
raneously is a habit formed by attentive repetition or frequent prac- 
tice in every subject. Help foward this end is derived from more 
elaborate answers to questions in every course. 

Rebuttal depends upon concentrated attention to everything 
th^ opponent says. The keen debater will detect misapplications 
or misstatements of facts, wrong inferences, and poor judgment in 
the stressing of unimportant points. Practice in meeting argu- 
ments, criticizing statements, challenging opinions, and conclusions 
should form part of the pupil's work in every course of the high 
school. It involves thinking, and this in turn rests upon rich 
information. The critical attitude develops slowly, but it should 



Supervising the Sttuly of English Composition 249 

be a fascmating part of the teacher's work to excite pupils to 
criticize in a lively, fair, impersonal, and constructive manner. 

d. Artistic Reading. This has taken the place of the old- 
fashioned declamations or recitations, with profit to every- 
body concerned. Reading is a fine art and all art is interpre- 
tation. To read well depends upon the rudiments of sentence 
structure and sympathy with the author's point of view. 
Facial expression, simple gestures, restrained emotionalism, 
suggestive intonation, appropriate attitude that radiates an 
atmosphere, are all essential to the artistic performance in this 
field. 

Besides the rules suggested under public speaking the follow- 
ing are important in this connection : 

Understand as well as possible what the author means. 

Picture as vividly as imagination based on knowledge permits 
what each character looks like and probably feels under the cir- 
cumstances of the story. 

Avoid overacting, ranting, tragical postures. 

Select for reading what you can do well. Never attempt a 
reading that others give if you are reasonably sure it is beyond your 
ability. 

If a book or manuscript is used, know most of it without refer- 
ring to the book. Turn the pages very quietly and as secretly as 
possible. 

Simple stage setting, such as table, chair, lamp, is helpful, but 
depend mostly on your own interpretation to convey the picture. 

If your memory fails at any point, be determined to remain calm ; 
invent appropriate phrases while you approach nearer to the 
prompter or the book. Never pause awkwardly. Act under all 
circumstances. Most of the audience will not detect the change of 
words, and those who do will sympathize with your difficulty. 

Select hopeful readings; avoid the morbid, the trashy, the repel- 



250 Supervised Sttuly 

lent. Make your performance a contribution to others' welfare 
as much as to their enjoyment. 

The program should be arranged on the following principles, 
stated in their order of application on the program : 

Part I 

1. Brief, cheerful, but not humorous selection. 

2. A humorous reading — a George Ade fable, for example. 

3. A simple romance — Gilbert Parker's " Sweethearts." 

4. A thoughtful reading — Maeterlinck's " Blind Men" or Van 

Dyke's "Blue Flower." 

Part II 

5. A pleasing bit of philosophy — "Mr. Dooley." 

6. A stirring selection — "Laska." 

7. A string of good jokes or a ghost story. 

8. A brisk, happy, and also meaningful selection. 

The program should last about an hour and a half. Selec- 
tions can be abbreviated when necessary, and often for public 
reading it is advisable to make such excisions of long descrip- 
tions full of confusing detail. 

General Summary 

An attempt has been made in this chapter to indicate some 
of the ways and means whereby courses in written and oral 
composition may be organized to serve legitimately cultural 
and practical ends. Supervising the study of English is, after 
all, principally a matter of supplying wholesome motivation 
and directing the pupil in worthwhile applications all along 
the line. The writer feels that what is needed is constructive 




Supervising the Study of English Composition 251 

criticism and courage to break with the past in English work. 
What has been suggested in this chapter, especially, aims to 
stimulate teachers to make their courses different from others 
in manner of approach, development, and application. Eng- 
lish is practical and must be supervised mainly from this point 
of view. 

Composition work is much like modeling in clay. There 
must be the raw material, properly mixed, deposited on the 
board, roughly pinched, pounded, and thumbed here and there 
before the finer work begins. First knowledge ; then careful 
selection of topics of individual interest, the rough sketching 
of the first draft ; and then frequent revision, improvement, 
and finally achievement. This is true of both the written and 
the oral forms of composition. 



i 



i 



CHAPTER X 

SUPERVISING THE STUDY OF HISTORY 

I. The Pupil's Attitude 

It is the irony of educational fate that what ought to be the 
most fascinating subject in the school program is all too often 
regarded by pupils as uninteresting and even useless. It is 
a mere platitude to remind ourselves of the fact that the aver- 
age and normal high school pupil is deeply moved by adven- 
ture and romance. An historical novel or romance with 
royalty and courtiers, beautiful princesses and bold soldier- 
heroes appeals to the social and sex instincts of young people. 
This is granted, and under proper conditions should be en- 
couraged. But can any novel or romance be more thrilling 
than many periods of history? Modern industry, invention, 
institutions, and customs originated and have been evolved 
imder circumstances " stranger than fiction," but the glory 
of this fact somehow fails to arouse the high school pupil. 

I . Pupils' Reasons for Disliking History. Wayland ^ cites 
a few reasons for pupils' disliking history. The pupils them- 
selves gave these reasons : 

I did not find it interesting. 

I had never seen any historical places. 

I did not know why I was studying it. 

1 How to Teach American History ^ Chapter XVII, IQ15. 

252 



Supervising the Sttuly of History 253 

My teacher did not like it. 

I was entered too high. 

I was given a book too hard for me. 

Other pupils stated that the teacher simply heard the lesson ; 
other teachers taught only facts and dates without any 
stories or interesting things. 

Apparently the main criticism in all of these replies is that 
somehow the teacher failed to make history athrill with life 
interest. In a recent investigation J. C. Brown and J. H. 
Minnick * found that dislike and lack of usefulness were the 
prevailing reasons for boys' and girls' wanting to drop Latin, 
art, manual training, mathematics, and history. 

2 . A New Point of View needed in Studjring History. High 
school teachers are not wholly, nor perhaps chiefly, to blame 
for this condition. The course of study in history and a 
stubborn conmiimity loyalty to traditional subjects are in 
part responsible. The overcrowding of the program of studies 
with many additions but rare elimination of subjects is another 
reason. Under crowded schedules of required and elective 
courses, with the effort to maintain some sort of continuity 
or sequence of courses, ancient, medieval, modem, and Eng- 
lish or American history cannot be studied by every pupil. 
The consequence is that pupils elect one of these together 
with the required American history, but, lacking the other 
departments of history, fail to obtain the needful background 
or continuity, without which historical study is indeed con- 
fusing or narrow. The pupil fails to see history big with 
world meaning and electric with life movements ! 

Another reason for the pupil's lack of interest in history is 
due to what has been called the encyclopedic method of 

1 Op. dt., pp. 527-545- 



2 $4 Supervised Sttidy 

teaching and study. Too many details are included in the 
course. There seems to be wanting a careful balancing of 
men and events. Judd calls attention to the fact that too 
much time is spent on ancient and medieval history to the 
neglect of what the normal pupil is vitally interested in — 
namely, modern and contemporaneous history. The pupil 
becomes lost in a wilderness of dates, names, battles, reigns, 
royal houses. He sees facts like archipelagoes, scattered 
without apparent relationships. When his course is 
finished, he cannot feel sure that history means something 
definite. 

Two striking attempts have been made to reduce the 
number of facts required in elementary American history. 
The Report of the Committee on Elementary Course of Study 
of the Minnesota Educational Association, Bulletin No. 51, 
March, 1914, contains the following suggestive list, introduced 
by the following important statement : 

Exact dates are of secondary importance and events should be 
related in time to one another. For purposes of examination only 
the following dates should be required : 

1. 1000 (about) Norse discovery of America. 

2. 1492 The discovery of America. 

3. 1519-21 Magellan sails around the world. 

4. 1607 Settlement of Jamestown. 

5. ij5i9 . Slavery introduced into Virginia. 

6. 1620 The Pilgrims land at Plymouth. 

7. 1643 The confederation of the New England colonies 

formed. 

8. 1754 Colonial Congress at Albany and Franklin's 

Plan of Union. 

9. 1759 Wolfe captures Quebec. 



Supervising the Study of History 255 

zo. 1765 Passage of the Stamp Act and the meeting of the 

Stamp Act Congress. 

zx. 1775 Battlesof Lexington and Concord and of Bunker Hill. 

12. 1776 Declaration of Independence. 

i3« 1777 The surrender of Burgoyne at Saratoga. 

14. 1781 ComwaUis surrenders at Yorktown. 

15. 1789 First Congress assembled in New York. 

Washington inaugurated President. 

16. 1793 Cotton-gin invented by Eli Whitney. 

17. 1803 Louisiana purchased from France. 

18. 1807 First trip of Fulton's steamboat. 

19. 181 2 War declared against England. 

20. 1813 Perry's victory on Lake Erie. 

21. 1820 Missouri Compromise adopted by Congress. 

22. 1823 Monroe Doctrine announced. 

23. 1826 First railroad built in the United States. 

24. 1844 First telegraph line established. 

25. 1846 Invention of the sewing machine. 

26. 1846-48 War with Mexico. 

27. 1848 Discovery of gold in California. 

28. 1850 Clay's Compromise adopted by Congress. 

29. 1858 Minnesota admitted to the Union. 

30. 1861 Succession of the South. 

31. 1862 Battle between the Merrimac and Monitor. 

32. 1863 Emancipation Proclamation. 

Battle of Gettysburg. 
Battle of Vicksburg. 

33. 1866 First Atlantic cable completed. 

34. 1867 First telephone patented. 

35. 1878 Electric light invented. 

36. 1898 War declared against Spain. 

Battle of Manila. 

37. 1903 First wireless message sent across the Atlantic. 

First message sent by the Pacific cable. 



256 



Supervised Stjudy 



Another list compiled from seventy-three replies, and ranked 
in the order of their most frequently stated evaluation, shows 
an interesting selection of dates regarded as important in 
American history in the elementary school.^ 



Rank 


Date 


Evaluation 
Index 


Rank 


Date 


Eva£uatiov 
Index 


I 


1776 


1323 


17 


177s 


58s 


2 


1492 


1 261 


18 


1781 


584 


3 


1607 


1 163 


19 


1823 


526 


4 


1789 


IIOO 


20 


1846 


470 


5 


1620 


961 


21 


1628 


467 


6 


1803 


955 


22 


1754 


421 


7 


1861 (Apr. 14) 


901 


23 


1865 (Apr. 14) 


389 


8 


1787 


821 


24 


1688 


373 


9 


1863 (Jan. i) 


808 


25 


1857 


354 


10 


1820 


793 


26 


1588 


301 


II 


1812 


752 


27 


1863 (July 7) 


299 


12 


1765 


629 


28 


/1522 
1 1778 




13 


1783 


618 


250 


14 


1865 (Apr. 9) 


601 


29 


1867 


18s 


15 


1850 


591 


30 


1885 


17s 


16 


1854 


590 









An interesting fact in connection with this composite list 
is that Professors Albert Bushnell Hart and Edward Chan- 
ning (two eminent historians) placed the dates in essentially 
the same order by independent judgment. 

Professor Charles A. McMurry believes that what is needed 
in every subject is a few large type lessons, rather than a re- 
duction of dates or events. History should be studied from 
the institution point of view ; as, for example. The Rise of 
Liberty, The Development of World Federation, The Evolu- 
tion of Congress, The Expansion of Trade, The Growth of 

^ School and Home Edi4caHon, December, 1914. 



Supervising the Study of History 257 

Industry, The Progress of Education, The Emancipation of 
Woman. 

3. Educational Value of History. The foregoing references 
to conditions imiversally present in high schools suggest that 
it is necessary for teachers of history to have before them a 
very definite aim in arousing interest in and supervising study. 
Many suggestions and opinions have been expressed. They 
may be summarized under the following list of aims in the 
teaching of history : 

{a) To interpret the meaning of modem institutions by 
tracing in bold strokes their origin and evolution. 

(ft) To appeal to the pupil's interest in his fellow man by 
acquainting him with the great characters, illustrious deeds 
of the past, and stressing the important fact that men in 
early times were dominated in the main by motives and 
passions similar to our own. This should lead to S3nnpathetic 
criticism and sane emulation. 

{c) To study facts accurately and always in historical 
relationships. Isolated facts, says Bushnell Hart, are not 
in themselves history. 

{(£) To arouse a healthful nationalism by acquainting the 
pupil with viewpoints, customs, traditions, tendencies, and 
ideals of other nations in contact with which his own nation 
should and must undergo readjustments. Patriotism that 
is blind to the good and even superiority in some respects of 
other countries is narrow and anti-social. True patriotism 
must always be embossed on a sympathetic cosmopolitanism. 
This is especially significant in these days of portentous scene 
shiftings on the stage of Europe. 

{e) To train the pupil to organize historical data into large 
concepts or historical ideas so that liberty, state, politics, 
s 



258 Supervised Sttidy 

classes, democracy, etc., loom up as large and rich world ideas, 
long changing and ever swinging into new meanings. 

n. The Aims and Corkesponding General Metsods 

Professor Albert Bushnell Hart ^ groups aims and methods 
in history in a suggestive way which may be tabulated as 
follows : 

AIM METHOD 

1. The study of facts and the Study of textbook; recitations. 

meaning of their grouping. 

2. The study of relationships Lectures or talks by teacher. 

between facts. (Exposition.) 

3. The study of organized facts Topical method or problem assign- 

in logical outlines. ment. 

4. Historical critical judgment. Pupil's discovery of topics and 

extensive outside reading. 

HE. How Pupils study History 

Before attempting in some detail an analysis of how the 
study of history should be supervised, it will be suggestive to 
review briefly reports on how pupils at present are trying 
to master this subject. 

I. Johnson's Report. Johnson, in the repott already dted 
in Chapter VII, summarizes his findings as follows. Arranged 
in the order of their frequency, pupils study history by 

a. Repeated readings. 

b. Selecting important topics. (Giles found that about 81 per 
cent of his pupils did this.) 

c. Reflecting upon the lesson. 

d. Reciting to oneself. 

^ Judd, Psychology of High School Subjects, 1915, p. 374. 



Supervising the Study of History 259 

e. Reciting to pupils. 

/. Imagining place and events. 

g. Making a map. 

A. Writing down the lesson. 

f . Remembering one event by another that occurred at the same 
time or is otherwise related. 



2. Rickard's Investigation. Rickard in his study dtes 
the methods employed by a pupil age twelve in Grade 7 A. 

a. I read lesson over. 

b. I read about it in other books. 

c. I look up words I do not understand. 

d. I then make an outline of paragraphs and look up each topic. 

Special Devices 

a. I put m)rself in the place of one of the characters in the lesson. 

b. I shut my eyes and think of it as a picture, one scene at a time. 

c. Sometimes in battles, I read the battle over, then draw a plan 
of the battle. 

d. 1 locate in the geography places mentioned. 

Another pupil, Grade 10 A, referred to in Rickard's report, 
describes her method in studying Roman history. 

(a) I read each separate paragraph and get the main points. 

(fr) I discuss to myself freely the main points and their relation 
to other parts. 

(c) I read it all over again to be sure I have not missed a 
single point. 

(rf) If I come to a word I don't understand, I look it up. 

(e) I locate in the atlas every city and country mentioned. 

The following special devices mentioned in Rickard's 
article indicate to what pains some pupils will go to master 
historical detail: 



26o Supervised Sttidy 

" I try to connect the names of men with places on the map. 

"I write down all dates and events which happened at that time 
beside them. 

"I use a rhyme for remembering dates, which I make up myself. 

"I use sums of money for important dates. I think of myself 
as having that many dollars." 

The reader of the foregoing methods has doubtless been 
impressed with the fact that very little of the work described 
is synthetic. It is primarily detailed and analytical, factual 
rather than conceptual. Pupils are strained to grasp the 
minutia and, so far as the reports go, seem unaware of the 
need of achieving an organization in which only a few large 
truss-like facts, resting on firm piers of causes, span the 
centuries of human progress. 

rv. Supervising the Studying of History 

During the study period, whatever type of organized study 
employed, the teacher's main task is to prevent the pupils 
from employing wasteful and imsuccessful methods. The 
routine of each period must be left to the teacher's judgment. 
Some days it will certainly be unnecessary to spend much time 
on detailed supervision, but, instead, considerable time on 
presenting, clearly and briefly, the meaning of some period 
or great historical occurrence, like the Thirty Years' War or 
the Feudal System, with these meanings illuminated by 
analogies in present-day circumstances. There can be no 
fixed time Kmit, no set rules, always to be observed. The 
truly successful teacher must be as independent in judgment 
as a blue-ribbon cook or a tailor de luxe. 

I. Rickard's Analysis. Attempts are being made to analyze 
the mental processes involved in studying the various sub- 



Supervising the Sttidy of History 261 

jects. One of the most successful of these analyses is that 
by Mr. Rickard. His analysis, which follows, deserves care- 
ful study. 

Mental Process involved in the Study of History 

A, Association: 

1. Of dates with events. 

2. Of the names of persons with events or vice versa, 

3. Of events and names with places — names and location of 
same on maps. 

4. By causal sequence — an event or events leading to an event 
or events. 

5. By similarity — comparison and contrast. 

B, Analysis which involves : 

1. The acquisition of the proper concept of new and technical 
terms around which concept future mental experience can be 
crystallized. 

2. Discrimination as to the importance of events and their 
interrelations. 

3. Resolution of a general concept into the elements which com- 
pose it. (Example, the term "FederaUsm" may be resolved into 
the social, poUtical, and economic elements which characterize it 
as an institution.) 

C, Synthesis the reverse of analysis, involving on lower levels : 

1. The telling of a story so as to tell all the important elements 
in order. 

2. The grouping of sentences to develop a topical sentence. 

3. The grouping of subtopics to develop a general topic on 
sotnewhat higher levels, 

4. The grouping of characteristics into special tendencies. 

5. The orderly arrangement of data, gathered from the text, 
collateral reading, or source material into these. 



262 Supervised Study 

2. The Dictionary Habit. The pupils should know in 
the beginning of the course the meanings of the terms com- 
monly found in history : " epoch/' " age," " century," 
" period," " decade," " campaign," " movement " being such 
terms. There should be frequent recourse to dictionaries, or 
better still in the assignment, to save time, new terms should 
be defined either on the board or on mimeographed Ksts. 

3. Steps in the Cultivation of Imagination and Feeling. 

a. Dramatic performance once a month in conjunction 
with English, domestic science, and manual training depart- 
ments, the former constructing the play and designing cos- 
tumes, the latter building properties. K an art department 
is available, its cooperation in decorations and designing of 
scenes would be invaluable. Pageants are an excellent varia- 
tion of dramatic performance. 

b. Assigning in each big unit of mstruction or topic histori- 
cal characters to various pupils who will retain these charac- 
ters during the respective units of instruction. Each pupil 
should read, as extensively as opportunity allows, supple- 
mentary material on his character. 

c. Correlation of Enghsh, music (state, national, and 
school songs), and the special phases of modem life in its 
industrial, conmiercial, religious, educational, and social 
applications. 

d. Employing local history; building tablets or monu- 
ments; having special days for unveiling these or doing so 
as part of Commencement Day. 

e. A history museum, history scrapbooks, discriminate 
library work. Too much emphasis cannot be laid on the 
importance of a wise use of the library for general work and 
also for the special study of local history. Mr. W. Dawson 



Supervising the Study of History 263 

Johnston^ refers to the stimulating method employed in 
Springfield, Mass., where the public library publishes an 
eight-page folder of pocket size containing questions that 
pertain to Springfield history and a list of books in which 
answers to the questions might be foimd. The list is called 
" Springfield in Early Days." 

History clubs are not a new typ^ of supplementary instruc- 
tion, but in connection with high school work they can prove 
to be very effective. The high school is perhaps over- 
supplied with organizations, but there would be a distinct 
advantage in having the best pupils meet twice a month 
to study local history, including the history of the state. At 
such meetings there could be presented multigraphed copies 
of old newspaper articles, facsimiles of old documents, per- 
sonalia of the pioneers, special programs covering exploration, 
settlement, development, and rebuilding, and also legends, 
ballads, and traditions of local and state history. The club 
meetings should be, of course, informal. Membership might 
be determined by election, members being selected from 
pupils attaining a certain standing in the formal class work. 
Sodal and refreshment features, occasional stereopticon 
lectures or plays dealing with local historical data would 
prove stimulating additions. Such clubs would be excellent 
means of fostering community activities, energizing the social 
center movement in rural districts. Parents, teachers, and 
pupils would here mingle. Local community pride might 
be aroused to emulation and progress by this means. 

4. Organization of Material. It has already been stated 
that pupils have more difficulty in acquiring a big and definite 
conception of historical events than in memorizing particular 

* School and Society, July 3, 1915. 



264 Supervised Study 

facts. Most of the effort in the supervision of study will, 
therefore, be concerned with trainmg pupils to think in history. 
Their first knowledge of data must be accurate ; the causes and 
occasions of events must be clearly associated with these 
facts. This logical framework will include not simply the 
data of one nation, but international relations must be 
understood by careful analysis, comparison, and grouping of 
eveilts. All this means organization of material, and or- 
ganization involves clear, logical thinking. 

a. In Chapter VII it was shown how the parallel type of 
outline is convenient for historical study, especially for the 
comparison of reigns. This outline form is serviceable also m 
the sketching of the rise of institutions, the simultaneous 
beginning and parallel development of historical reforms, 
such as the Renaissance in Italy and Germany and in England ; 
the Reformation in Germany, France, and England; the 
American and the French Revolutions. The pupil must be 
able to trace the origin and to contrast the different lines of 
progress of the Renaissance, and must know how this movement 
affected the Reformation in various ways and eventually led 
to the American Revolution and in turn to the French 
struggle against the Bourbons. 'The details of the web 
of circumstances must be seen over against one another, 
and then all together as a large section in the span of 
historical progress. The parallel outline serves this purpose 
very well. 

b. Dr. Wayland^ cites numerous mnemonic devices that 
have proved helpful in the inevitable memory work in history. 
He refers especially to the Alliterative or Euphonious Outline, 
of which two illustrations are here given : 

* Op. dt. 



Supervising the Study of History 265 

FOUR STAGES OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

I. Struggle for Life, 1492-1789 

II. Struggle of Factions, 1 789-1820 

m. Struggle of Sections, 1820-1877 

IV. Struggle of Classes, 1877- 

XHREE STAGES OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

I. Construction, 1 776-1 789 
II. Destruction, 1860-1865 
in. Reconstruction, 1865-1877 

c. A suggestive method of bringing out the foregoing details 
is used by Rickard.^ His directions are as follows : 

Directions for Studying History 

When you take up a book what do you see? The first thing 
you will notice is that there are certain lines in very heavy type. 
These were put in heavy type in order that your attention may be 
called to them. Sometimes there are lines in heavy type through 
the middle of the page, and then lines in the same type at the sides. 
This usually means that the author has wished to call your atten- 
tion to certain subtopics which bear upon or re-enforce the general 
topic. You should find what the words of these heavy lines mean. 
If there are unfamiUar words, look them up in a dictionary. Try 
to change these lines into your own words ; say them to yourself 
until you are sure you know the general topic, and the subtopics. 
Ask yourself in each case how these subtopics are related to the 
general topic outlined at the beginning of the chapter. In order 

^ The author is indebted for many suggestions sent to him by Mr. Rickard, 
who generously made available for this book several data on an investigation in 
the supervising of the study of history in the high school of Oakland City, 
Ind. 



266 Supervised Study 

to do this one must proceed to the subject matter of the text. 
One will find there first of all indentations which indicate the begin- 
ning of a paragraph. If you will search carefully, you will find in 
each paragraph one sentence which is the key to the thought ex- 
pressed in that paragraph. When you have found this key sen- 
tence underscore it or write it down in a brief memorandum. 
These memoranda in turn will be subtopics imder the subtopics 
which were in heavy type. Strive constantly to see how the topical 
sentences are related to the subtopics and these in turn to the more 
general topics. 

If the author uses imf amiliar words look them up ; if he mentions 
places, find them on a map ; if he mentions persons, turn to the 
back of the book. Find where the person has been mentioned 
before, and refresh your mind in regard to him, or consult additional 
reference. After doing this reread the statement made by the 
author and try making the statement in your own words. Try 
constantly to connect names and places. Write them in groups if 
possible, or write, for example, the English and French leaders in 
the Hundred Years' War in parallel colunms. Think of men as 
stationed on a map or moving from place to place in campaigns. 
Get the picture with your eyes closed. 

Most events in history have a cause or causes, or conditions 
leading to, or events leading to. Ask yourself constantly what 
the causes of a given event are. Set them down in one, two, three 
order. Say them to yourself until you know them, and see clearly 
their relation to the result produced. 

Imagine yourself as a teacher and ask yourself questions ; then 
find the answers. 

As a rule only a few dates will be assigned you, but these should 
be associated with their proper events and learned as thoroughly 
as a multiplication table. 

Don't be content with doing these things on one occasion, but 
with your book closed try to call up the important points, places, 
and persons, and their relation one to the others. 



Supervising the Study of History 267 

Have the will to learn. The brilliant boy who finds it more 
agreeable to bluff a lesson than to prepare it, soon becomes incapable 
to the point of dullness. The least brilliant of you, by careful 
methods of study, can become an effective and satisfactory student. 

5. Reviews and Summaries. The chief value of reviews 
lies in the accompanying necessity of reorganizing the subject 
matter. Outlines each day contain the pupil's interpretation 
of the text with possibly material from other sources inter- 
woven. The review embraces everything mcluded in the 
particular imit of instruction. It is fundamentally im- 
portant to have well-planned reviews at the close of each 
large topic studied in order to sum up and evaluate the various 
facts. For this reason reviews should be 
^ a. Selective not Exhaustive. Details, unless of fundamental 
importance, should now be disregarded. What is needed is 
a clear and broad conception of this section of material. The 
pupil must have a perspective of the road traveled. 

i. New Views. Reviews are not drill lessons ; not simply 
a repetition of statements and facts studied day by day. 
Facts must now be viewed again from new angles, in the 
light of material that followed. This means that daily 
assignments will now be reset, so to speak, picked out of their 
little mold, and assembled with others into a big idea, a 
clear understanding of what particular events meant at the 
time. It ought to be evident that this is not the teacher's 
task alone ; it is primarily the pupil's test of how he has learned 
history. If he can interpret this large topic, he will be pre- 
pared to take up what follows. 

c. Vitalized by Association with Some Present-day Truth or 
Problem. In other words, the best way to clinch a review is 
by some specific application or by some method of expres- 



268 Supervised Study 

sion that indicates the value, the worthwhileness of the re- 
view. The day oi^ reviewing can be made a " Red Letter 
Lesson " — an unforgettable revelation of how history after 
aU is a huge story of men and women with origins, natures, 
development, ideals, faults, like men and women of to-day. 
Various methods to make this possible have been suggested. 
Superintendent E. E. Smith of South Richmond, Va., em- 
ploys the following type of organization in the Bainbridge 
Junior High School : 

Larger Problems 

Roosevelt and Jackson Compared and Contrasted. (See Bassett, 
A Short History of the United States, Chapter XL — ''The 
Administrations of Roosevelt and Taft.") 

Are we affected by the outcome of many of the events of this period? 

METHOD OF STUDY OF THE PROBLEMS 

Characteristics of the two men contrasted and compared : 
In fighting spirit : 
In actual warfare, one was the Hero of San Juan and the other 
the Hero of New Orleans. 
In administrative affairs of the government : 
The fight against the corporations — Roosevelt. 
The fight for election after 1824 — Jackson. 
The fight against fraud — Roosevelt. 
The fight for the establishment of Democratic principles. 
Opposition to American System and National Bank — 
Jackson. 
In tendency to use irregular methods : 
Both were extremely democratic in their method of appealing 
to the masses. 



k 



Supervising the Study of History 269 

In choice of advisers — Roosevelt's "Tennis Cabinet" and 
Jackson's "Kitchen Cabinet." 

The "Big Stick " wielded when nothing else would avail. 
Witness Roosevelt's taking the Canal Zone, putting Taft in 

office, and dictating of pohcies to his party. 
Witness Jackson's hanging the EngUshman in Florida, man- 
agement of the Creek Indian Affair, introduction of the 
spoils system, method of doing away with the National 
Bank, and putting Van Buren into the presidency. 
In fearlessness : 

Roosevelt settles the coal strike in spite of its effect on his or 
his party's ambition. 

Roosevelt probes the postal scandal. 

Roosevelt inaugurates strict civil service. 

Jackson handles nuUification in South Carolina in spite of his 
personal view in regard to tariff. 
The outcome of their influence on their respective times : 

Roosevelt caused the beginning of an era of investigation, by the 
government, a revolution in his party, and defeat of Taft. 

Jackson caused a temporary financial disarrangement in Van 
Buren's time, an organized treasury, and the defeat of 
Van Buren. The idea of popular government gained a 
stronger footing in the popular mind. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

McKinley's Outline — Topics U 24 and 25. 

Bassett, A Short History of the United States, Chapter XL. 

Periodicals of 191 2. 

d. Methods of Reviewing. 

(i) Biographical — Pupils are assigned important names in the 
field of history just covered. Special reports are made on these, 
either by individuals or by groups. 



270 Supervised Study 

(2) Contests such as history, spelling, officer, geographical, 
map-drawing, the class being divided into two sides, with leaders, 
much as in the old-time spelling bee.^ 

(3) Topical outlines, newspaper squibs or articles, orations, 
dramatic performance or pageant. 

(4) Review questions by teacher or by pupil or by both. 

6. Suggested Directions to Pupils for the Study of EQstory. 
It would be helpful if history teachers prepared a chart like 
the following directions by Rickard and hung it in dear view 
of the class. 



Directions to Pupils for the Study of History 

1. Only a few of the most important dates will be assigned, but 
these should be connected with their proper event and learned as 
thoroughly as a multipUcation table. 

2. Write out and pronounce all proper names. Try to connect 
each name with some place and some event. 

3. Use map, dictionary, and additional reference for every loca- 
tion and word you are not sure of. 

4. Try to find the cause or causes of each event. 

5. In comparison and contrast set down likenesses and differ- 
ences point by point in parallel columns. 

6. Ask yourself continually what the most important events in 
your lesson are and why. 

7. Tell the story of your lesson to yourself in detail and in order. 
Be sure to use any term you have recently learned the meaning of. 

8. After reading each paragraph ask yourself, "How is this 
paragraph related to the chapter heading? " 

9. Jot down a brief memorandum of the points of each lesson 
which you regard as especially important. 

^ Wayland has an excellent list of suggestions on conducting reviews. 



I 



Supervising the Study of History 271 

V. Common Debticulties and Faults among the Pupils 

STUDYING History 

The study supervisor, like a good locomotive engineer, must 
know the track, its rise, fall, curves, weaknesses, etc. There 
is a variety of deficiencies among pupils, a knowledge of 
which would help the teacher to make more effective assign- 
ments. These diflEiculties and faults can be listed briefly as 
follows : 

1. Wrong inferences. 

2. Confused knowledge. 

3. Inaccurate statements. 

4. Misspelling of names with consequent confusion. 

5. Paucity of language. 

6. Loose generalities. 

7. Blunt historical sense. 

8. Memorizing of too many details. 

9. Uncertain conception of relationships. 

10. Inability to weigh or evaluate material. 

11. Failure to evolve a brief and clear scheme of organization 
either by outline or summaries. 

12. Too much copying in notebooks. 

13. Too little correlation with other subjects. 

14. A narrow view or a one-sided point of view. History should 
be studied from several angles, industrial, educational, etc., as well 
as poUtical. 

VI. The Technic op a Supervised Study Period in 

History 

In order to illustrate some of the foregoing material and 
at the same time summarize the various points in this chap- 
ter the following plan, evolved by Dr. J. L. Merriam of the 



% 



272 Supervised Study 

University of Missouri, is presented as a most excellent 
procedure. 

University High School — Ancient History — 8 O'clock 
Outline of Lesson Plan — Jan. 30, 1913 
Text in use : Westerman, Story of Ancient Nations 
Prepared by Eleanor Wilkes 
General problem for this period : To see how Greece is at last 
united in an offensive policy against Persia by Macedon — Para- 
graphs 238-245. 

1. Rise of Macedon under Phihp. 
Text, paragraphs 238-240. 

IFhng — Source Book — pp. 286-294. 
Goodspeed — ^p. 191, etc. 
Bury — pp. 555-561. 

2. Thoughts of the times on the proposed unity under Macedon. 
Text, paragraphs 240-243. 

f Goodspeed — p. 191, etc. 

1 Bury, pp. 704-705, 716, 744, 583-SSS, etc. 

3. Macedon unites Greece for offensive vs. Persia. 
Text, paragraphs 243-245. 

IFUng — pp. 286-294. 
Bury. 
Oman, etc. 
I. Recitation. / 

A, On class study of previous day. 
Rise of Macedon under Philip. 
I. Compare the old Macedon with: 
a. Athens — 

f Athens civiUzed — shown in government, culture. 
I Macedon barbarian — shown in government, culture. 
h. Sparta — 

f Sparta civiUzed. 

I Macedon barbarian — government was much the same, 
but Sparta's was more organized. 



Supervising the Study of History 273 

Illustration in America — Compare old Macedon with American 

Indians. 

2. Give reasons why Macedon had not developed before : 
fl. Macedon separated from Oriental civilization. 

b. Separated from Greece by mountains. 

c. Macedon had a few good seaports. 

d. Macedon had no good leader. 

3. Explain why Macedon grew in the time of Philip : 

a. Increased means of communication with other peoples 

since contact with Persia. 

b. As a consequence, Greek and Oriental culture filtered into 

Macedon. 

c. Greece weakened by wars. 

d. Leadership of Philip. 

4. Explain PhiUp's poUcies in organizing his kingdom : 
a. To organize scattered tribes into a nation. 

J. To form a standing army. 

c. To gain an outlet to JEgesm Sea. 

d. Ultimately to unite Greece with Macedon for a war with 

Persia. 
B. Questions (on the advanced reading which was assigned the pre- 
vious day. These are to be factual questions. Books still closed) . 

1. What two parties appeared in Athens on account of PhiUp's 

poUcy? 

2. Who represented these parties? 

3. What means did these men use to spread their ideas? 

4. Tell something of the life of (a) Demosthenes ; {b) Isocrates. 
II. Class Study. (Books open.) 

Thoughts of the time on the proposed units under Macedon. 
To show the effect of contemporary theories upon the unity 

of Greece. 
I. Demosthenes, his ideals and his party : 

a. Explain Demosthenes' ideas concerning the aggressive 

policies of PhiUp. 



274 Supervised Study 

h. Why did he take the negative attitude against these 
policies? 
(i) He feared for the independence of Athens and 

Greece as a whole. 
(2) Could not see that Greece was incapable of uniting 
without foreign help, etc 
c. What was the effect of Demosthenes' views cm Athens? 
Strong party developed vs. Philq>. 
2. Isocrates, his ideals and his party : 

a. Explain the judgment of Isocrates concerning Philip's 

aggressive policy. 

b. Why did he want the leadership of Philip in Greece? 

(i) He saw that Greece was weakened. 

(2) He saw that there was no leader in Greece like 
PhiKp. 

(3) Philip alone could give Greece a national enterprise. 

(4) This was the only hope of an effective alliance 
against Persia. 

c. Compare patriotism of Demosthenes with that of 

Isocrates. 

{Demosthenes loyal to Athens. 
Isocrates lo3ral to Greece as a whole. 

d. Let us see what effect the beliefs of Isocrates had at 

Athens. 
(A strong Macedonian party developed in Greece.) 

e. Let us see how the new education at Athens effected 

the spread of these respective beliefs. 
(Oratory, rhetoric, etc.) 
III. Assignment. 
I. On class study: 

a. Give three reasons why one could say that Demos- 

thenes stood for the Old Greek ideals. 

b. Give three reasons why one could say that Isocrates 

stood for the New Greek ideals. 



\ 



Supervismg the Study of History 275 

c. Discuss why it was thought that Macedon should be 
the leader in the wars vs. Persia. 
2. Advanced Reading : 

Text, paragraphs 243-245. (See also reference at first of 

this section.) 
Purpose of advanced reading: 

To show : I. How Greece at last united under Macedon. 
2. How the pohcy now changed from the de- 
fensive to the offensive. 



CHAPTER XI 
SUPERVISING THE STUDY OF CIVICS 

I. The Present Significance of the Subject 

The criticism quite generally expressed against history 
as being uninteresting and useless cannot be directed against 
the studying of civics, for here we are concerned with the 
immediate surroundings of- life, community conditions that 
favor or harm personal growth in a variety of ways. There 
ought not to be any difficulty in securing proper motivation 
in this subject. Citizenship, social welfare, intimate knowl- 
edge of local conditions, good roads, etc., are live topics. 
Civics, perhaps more than any other subject except the purely 
manual, should spend less time upon textbook and reading 
matter and more upon excursions, tours of observation, and 
purposeful visits to the several agencies of local community 
existence. The real value of civics as a school subject lies 
in first-hand knowledge of how group life is organized, not 
merely in the immediate home environment of the pupil but 
elsewhere as well, and of how life at home is intimately tied 
up with life away from home. It is a study of the purpose, 
the nature, the methods, the ultimate possibilities or ideals 
of citizenship as a practical and forceful element in human 

progress. 

276 



Supervising the Study of Civics 277 

II. How TO SECURE INTEREST IN CiVICS 

Interesting in itself, just as history is, civics can become 
dry and seem useless unless certain factors or elements of the 
subject are especially made appealing. In a recent bulletin ^ 
it is suggested that the following topics form the units of in- 
struction in civics: (i) health; (2) protection of life and 
property; (3) recreation; (4) education; (5) civic beauty; 
(6) wealth; (7) commimication ; (8) transportation; (9) 
migration; (10) charities; (11) correction. In addition to 
the foregoing the organization and financing of governmental 
and of voluntary agencies are included. 

It will be noted that each one of these topics is alive and 
possesses interest for the average wide-awake yoimg person 
in the high school. There is, then, no need of struggling to 
form an interest, already existing; but there is great need of 
directing it into worthwhile effort. The pupil should at the 
very outset have a perspective, a panorama, a preview of the 
course. He should glimpse on the. first day the entrancing 
points of interest offered in this subject. Moreover, it should 
be impressed upon the pupils at the beginning of the study 
that civics is peculiarly a subject that appeals to the individual, 
to his responsibility, his resourcefulness, his development, 
his enrollment, and his cooperation in the forces of civic im- 
provement. 

III. Methods of Studying Civics 

The study hall of civics is the entire community. No one 
can derive any great amount of benefit from the mere reading 

* The Teaching of Community Civics^ U. S. Biireau of Education Bulletin, 
1915, No. 23, Whole No. 650, price lo ff, Department of Interior, Washington, 
D.C. 



278 Supervised Study 

of a textbook on civics. At best it deals only with principles, 
but, primarily, civics is a laboratory study, a study of life 
conditions as they are, not mere copies or pictures of life's 
needs and problems. 

I. Group Assignments. The topics are so many and the 
time so short that it will be necessary to assign small groups 
of three or four pupils special problems for investigation and 
report. A partial list of such topics is here given : 

a. Better Roads. 

b. New Viaducts, Ctdverts, Bridges. 

c. Playgrounds, 

d. Athletics, including tennis courts, basket ball, baseball, 
cross-country running. 

e. Advertisements, A study of signboards in town, along 
coimtry roads, on vacant and occupied buildings, windows, 
sidewalks, posts, poles, trees. The character of these, 
samples or pictures of them — all this leading to the recom- 
mendation of a public advertising center, properly arranged 
and maintained. 

/. Amusements, Study of the moving-picture shows, 
classes of subjects shown, number attending, amoimt 
spent, who attend, etc., with recommendations for improved 
lighting, better screens, better lanterns, better ventilation, 
more beautiful exterior, and a higher and more varied selection 
of films. Similar study of the theater, the circus, the county 
fair. 

g. Church Life, Membership of churches, how the churches 
are governed locally and at large, training of minister, list 
of subjects and texts he uses, what is done at prayer meetings, 
the church music, the appearance of the church (interior and 
exterior), how strangers are treated, does the church pay its 



Supervising the Study of Civics 279 

minister a living salary, does it pay the.salary on time, what 
organizations are maintained by the churches, what social 
service do they render, etc., with recommendations for 
changes, improvement, cooperation. 

h. Newspaper. Names of those subscribed for and read 
in the commimity or county; kind of articles appearing; 
kind of news, advertisements, phases of life included, and 
amount of space given to the various kinds of each; how 
papers are delivered, — on time, with good wrappers, de- 
posited by the door or thrown in the yard where they are 
easily lost; cooperation of editor with civic improvement; 
the political policy of the paper, who owns it, circulation, 
how often quoted in other papers ; is editor a public-spirited, 
educated person, etc. 

i. Club Life of the Community. Names of clubs, who belong, 
purpose of clubs, when do they meet; what good do they 
accomplish ; amount of money spent for dues, socials, chari- 
ties, etc. ; officers — who they are in society, in business, in 
church, etc. A list of these clubs, with relevant material 
published in pamphlet form or in the newspaper, would be an 
eye opener to some commimities. 

j. Living Expenses. Food, clothing, light, heat, building, 
taxes, value of real estate, number of property owners, 
number of renters; slum or alley or tenement sections; 
number of automobiles owned, live stock, etc. Reports could 
be obtained from local dealers. The aggregate reports would 
show how much it costs the town to live, — a most vital 
fact in civics. 

k. Educational Provisions. Schools, public and private, 
with running expenses itemized ; boy scouts, camp-fife girl 
organizations with membership and other details; reading 



28o Supervised Study 

circles, lectures, library facilities, number of books possessed, 
magazines taken, etc. These reports would show the in- 
tellectual standing of the commimity. 

/. Public and Private Health. Kinds of diseases treated, 
number of cases on physicians' books, amount spent on ill- 
health, local sanitariums if any, patients' probable causes of 
ill-health; storage, markets, dairies, sewerage. 

m. Utilities, Light, water, travel, including amount spent 
on cars, trains, boats, bus or jitney, livery. 

n. Public Morals, Number of police, arrests, number and 
causes, jail conditions, court conditions, kinds of cases on 
docket. 

The foregoing indicate the immense possibilities of how civics 
may be kept alive and how the subject can be studied with 
maximum effectiveness. Teachers should possess the bulletin 
referred to, for a detailed statement of the wide variety of 
topics to be investigated. 

Pupils undertaking these assignments must have the co- 
operation of every citizen in the community. It is right and 
proper that these growing boys and girls should have first- 
hand knowledge of some of the life conditions in their com- 
munity. When their time comes to vote and to hold office, 
their worth to society will be invaluable if back of patriotism 
there is more than sentiment, — intelligent criticism based on 
facts. Mere theories and principles will not suffice. Facts 
are stubborn and explosive or compelling in quieter ways, but 
careful study of such civic facts is imperative in a sane and in- 
telligent democracy. 

Reports, presented and discussed, with evidence or exhibits 
will occupy the bulk of the course. Supplementary reading 
can be used for comparisons and interpretations. The best 



\ 



Supervising the Sttuiy of Civics 281 

reports should be published in the local paper or in the high 
school magazine. 

2. Current Topics. A most helpful variety of reports 
takes the form of Current Topics. The following method 
employed in the Bainbridge Jimior High School of Richmond, 
Va., is an illustration of how civic information can be 
developed. Superintendent Smith submits the following 
report of the plan : 

a. Selecting the Time, At least one day in each week should 
be devoted to the consideration of current topics of social interest. 
Friday is often selected, since a resimi6 of the week's happenings 
can be talked about, and because any publications containing 
current topics reach people on or about Thursday. The important 
thing, however, is to select a time and see to it that the pupils 
come prepared with something to say. Simply to say something 
is not the idea of the work. 

One period in history or civics can be devoted to this topic. 
If approval is given and more time is required, a portion of some 
other period might be added with much profit. 

6. Preparation by the Pupils, Pupils should bring to the 
class (i) some current periodical, or (2) some recent news- 
paper, or (3) some clipping or clippings that they may have 
saved. 

c. Motive. The material presented should be of interest to the 
entire class. It should have value as instruction and a distinct 
social color. Pupils should decide on the merits of what is being 
presented, although it is sometimes necessary for the teacher to do 
so. As an example of the above, one pupil in the seventh grade 
presented the following item : "I see that X — has been the victim 
of a fortune teller. It reads * Citizen of Richmond Fleeced; 
desires his money back.' " An account of the local unpleasantness 
followed. While many knew the man referred to, one of the pupils 



282 Supervised Stvdy 

arose and said kindly: "This is of Kttle interest to us," and the 
matter was dropped. 

We are all agreed that children should be encouraged to read 
current topics and taught how to read them. But simply to read 
and talk about items of interest is not enough. If a class record 
is kept, it is of inmiense value. A class scrapbook containing an 
account of morning exercise programs, postals and pictures of 
historical, geographical, and other interests, many items of class 
interest, etc., which, in a concrete way, supplement the curriculum 
and aid social activities. Even jokes can be pasted to advantage. 
News items which serve some special needs of the class or which, 
as a record, are valuable, should be kept ; and children, thus col- 
lecting by groups, can easily form the oft-neglected habit of "dip- 
ping." Or a record alone of the current events class might be kept. 

Other motives are : approval by fellow members, gaining ability 
to get opinions and facts quickly and to organize, carrying such 
news to those who do not know it or have no way of finding out, 
ability to participate in the conversations of parents, friends et 
als. Others might be added. The latter are individual motives, 
while the former may be called group or social motives. 

Note. The collecting instinct is very strong in children and the suggestion 
offered is entirely psychological. Practice proves it. 

d. Preparation by the Teacher, For the teacher to actually 
prepare for the material to be presented by the class by reading 
a great deal or most of the periodicals and papers, is impossible, 
for she does not know from what sources the material will come. 
But it is desirable and necessary that she "keep up" with current 
topics by reading some good magazine or magazines and at least 
one good newspaper regularly. In fact, to organize what she does 
read, to select certain articles for supplementing thought at any 
time during the school day in any and various subjects in order to 
assist in directing the thought of the current events period, is very 
desirable. 



Supervising the Study of Civics 283 

The better the knowledge of economic principles, civil govern- 
ment, and allied organized knowledge, the better her qualifications, 
other things being equal. To know the make-up of a newspaper 
— what kind and what body of knowledge it contains — gives her 
a decided tool and a very necessary one. 

e. Desired Aims in Teaching It. The purposes of teaching it 
are as follows : (i) to get pupils in the habit of reading this kind 
of literature; (2) to show them how to read it by having them 
select material of social value, and the make-up of the paper, etc. ; 
(3) to have them organize the material selected for purposes of 
record, information, and the training secured in this process ; (4) 
to give them standards for judging the inferiority or superiority 
of things sold to the public to read. 

/. Material. The sources from which children contribute have 
been found to be : newspapers, magazines, health bulletins, theater 
programs, almanacs, novels, etc. A good map of the world should 
be before the entire class. 

g. Standards for Judging the Value of Contributions. Contribu- 
tions offered to the class by individuals of it should be of interest 
to many, if not all. The material should be authentic, and the 
source* quotecf by pupils. 

h. Delivery of Contributions. Contributions should be given in 
a whole-hearted way. Pupils should address the class, not the 
teacher. They should present, at the very beginning, the gist of 
what they desire to say, why they wish to tell or read it, and the 
source from which the information comes. For example, pupil 
A arises, faces the class, and says: "My attention was directed 
to (or I saw in) the Times of Thursday, December 2, 1914, an 
interesting article (thing, statement, etc.). It tells us something 
about cotton production." He continues: "This article tells us 
that a machine has been invented, etc. If I may, I should like to 
read a short description of it." Approval is given by one or more 
members. He proceeds to read. 

The pupils' replies should be as broad as the subject, making due 



284 Supervised Study 

allowance for maturity. For pupils to make a five minute talk or 
a three or two minute talk should become quite common. This 
fluency of discussion is rather conspicuous now because of its 
scarcity. 

i. How the Contributions are Organized, Contributions and 
readings can be organized to great advantage by having the topics 
touched upon grouped on the blackboard. For instance, the fol- 
lowing outline is a partial organization of the contributions of a 
class, placed upon the blackboard, the teacher having directed it : 

CURRENT TOPICS 

1. War News. 

1. Four Theaters of War — (Current Events) 

2. What was news fifty years ago (1864) — (Local news- 

paper) ? 
The two compared. 

3. Government Investigations. 

2. Inventions and Discoveries. 

1. War helps a certain kind of invention. 

2. How much of the world is not discovered? 

3. Health and Sanitation. • 

1. State laws which investigate foot disease in cattle. 

2. Panama Canal completed. Tolls received (related to 

health on account of early difficulties in building it). 

4. Local News. 

1. Death rate in . . . (chart). 

2. Our city government . . . (chart). 

5. General News Here and There. 

(Items not Usted, but enjoyed.) 

j. Re-reading with a Specific Purpose, When the separate 
contributions have been received and organized, there is oflFered 
an opportunity for group rivalry. Suppose that five topics have 
been presented. Give to groups in the class (five groups in this 
case) one of the organized captions, and ask them to look quickly 



Supervising the Study of Civics 285 

over their newspaper or whatever they have (textbooks and 
reference books, etc., can sometimes play a valuable part when 
referred to), and see if they can add anything to what has already 
been said. Using the illustration above, one group would have 
"War News," another "Inventions and Discoveries," another 
"Health and Sanitation," still another "Local News," and finally 
" General News Here and There." " Good Jokes " sometimes adds 
humor and entertainment. In this case, it is not necessary to 
group, — all are very anxious to contribute ! 
k. Important Points, 

1. Prepare for the period. 

2. Give a short while for a re-reading of their papers. 

3. Encourage voluntary offerings. 

4. Organize, in the most suitable way, the subjects touched 
upon. Provide for recording. 

Standard : Is the contribution of social value ? 

5. Reassign subjects to certain groups. 

6. Call for volimteers for an extended presentation of the most 
important and interesting things. Provide for recording. 

It should be understood that the citizens of the community 
are welcome at all meetings of the class in civics. For this 
reason it would be wise to conduct this class in the largest 
room of the school and at an hour convenient for everybody. 
Additional reports could be presented at the Parent-Teacher 
League which should be organized as a special branch of the 
course in civics. This would enhance adult interest and 
cooperation. 

K reports are brief, two or three might be read at a meeting, 
providing they are related. 

Pupils should be assigned reports at the beginning of the 
term with date of reading the report, and a list of these assign- 
ments posted in a conspicuous place so that all the pupils 



286 Supervised Study 

of the school cgn read it. It would be well also to publish 
the schedule in the local paper. 

Whenever possible, pupils should be expected to make large 
charts of their results or conclusions for easy perusal by 
audiences. These charts should then be preserved in the 
school museum. 

In a small school, or even in a large one, it probably would 
be impossible to cover all the subjects in the course. The 
remainder could be taken up in subsequent terms. What- 
ever is imdertaken should be done as thoroughly as possible, 
otherwise the reports would have little or no value. 

Summary 

The outcome of detailed observation of civic life, not only 
local but state and national as well, should be to foster 
friendliness, cooperation, team work, and loyalty for the 
building up of respectable centers of life. The high school, 
under the dominance of these motives, becomes in a very 
real sense the people's school, the dynanMc of a saner and more 
beautiful manner of living, the inspiration of effort to advance 
beyond the best of the past or present. Under such conditions 
schools would eventually find financial support more generous, 
and teachers would feel that their standing in the welfare of 
the community was regarded as all important in a more vital, 
active, and rewardable form. 



k 



CHAPTER XII 
SUPERVISING THE STUDY OF MATHEMATICS 

I. The Problem of Reorganization 

The author served as study coach for a brief period in a high 
school taught by a superior corps of teachers and in many 
respects controlled by a model organization. Conditions 
among the pupils seemed normal. There was doubtless 
as much interest in studying as one finds in the average 
American high school. The number of promotions were 
normal so far as present curves of promotions justify this 
conclusion. Nevertheless, more of the pupils who came to 
the study coach had trouble with mathematics than with any 
other subject. This distribution was not at all affected by 
sex ; both boys and girls in equal number had difficulties in 
algebra and geometry. 

No one acquainted with high school pupils will deny that 
much of the fear and trembling in working out an education 
is caused by mathematics. Still required subjects in practi- 
cally all high schools (due largely to the dominance of entrance 
requirements to college), there is little or no opportunity to 
avoid the terrors of algebra and geometry. There are, to be 
sure, wholesome efforts being made to effect some sort of re- 
vision. Former ComnMssioner David Snedden of Massachu- 
setts, for example, strongly advocates inquiry into why girls 

287 



i 



288 Supervised Study 

in high school should be compelled to study algebra or why 
girls seeking entrance into college must present a certain 
number of credits in mathematics. He believes also that 
young men who aim to enter medicine, law, journalism, or 
theology do not need algebra. Other critics advocate a reduc- 
tion of the amount of mathematics required in high school, 
and some universities have made notable revisions in math- 
ematical entrance requirements. One feels that in these 
days of reorganization throughout secondary education some- 
thing definite and worthwhile will result. 

It is easy enough to throw the whole blame for the trouble 
in mathematics upon the teachers. There is no need here to 
stress in any detail what teachers themselves know all too well, 
that many of them lack scholastic and teaching experience 
adequate to relieving the situation. With some knowledge of 
algebra or geometry and a few courses in methods, any teacher, 
it would seem, ought to be able to teach mathematics, espe- 
cially with a good textbook and a key ! Why, then, do pupils 
have so much trouble with the subject? Evidently because 
they are either stupid in mathematics or because " it is the 
most difficult subject in the school." A star performer in al- 
gebra and geometry is looked upon by the other pupils as a 
marvel or perhaps a freak — certainly not ordinarily human. 

Tradition is a tenacious thing. All of us tend to believe 
that mathematical ability is extraordinary and is the mark of 
a superlatively acute mentality. The mischief in this belief 
lies in letting it ajBEect one's attitude toward the pupils, — some 
can get it, help them ; some cannot get it, be merciful and let 
them through, anyway. The latter are enrolled in the tradi- 
tional " born shorts " ; the others tread fine floor or mosaic 
corridors with the strides of genius! " Ah me," sigh the gal- 



Supervising the Study of Mathematics 289 

lery gods, "I wish I was as smart as John or Sue! " Or per- 
haps the host with lighter tinted gray matter sneer at the book- 
wormish few who don't have spine enough to be " Uke other 
folks." And so mathematics becomes a badge of genius, or 
the ball and chain of curriculum slaves. 

n. The Value of Mathematics 

Out of the mass of arguments for and against this subject, 
it is fair to conclude that the studying of mathematics has 
certain distinct benefits. These may be sunmiarized as fol- 
lows: 

1. Inasmuch as no one can foresee what life's changes will 
require of each of us in the way of skill, information, adaptabil- 
ity, etc., it is important that every progressive citizen should 
know the fundamentals of mathematics. 

2. Algebra is a short cut of arithmetic and, therefore, of 
practical value, especially when correlated with arithmetic and 
studied as a phase of the science of numbers. 

3. Geometry finds its truest claim in stimulating pupils to 
observe the definite procedure of reasoning. It does require 
careful speaking at a time when language tends to be extrava- 
gant and inexact. This need not mean that there is any trans- 
fer from exact speaking in geometry to exactness in describing 
a thunderstorm, or translating ; but it does mean that pupils 
are introduced in a controlled way to the importance of basing 
conclusions on demonstration. Geometry has little value out- 
side of its " originals." Its training in independent thinking 
is one effective means of swinging the pupil away from mere 
memory work. As long as the doctrine of formal discipline is 
oscillating between proof and disproof, it may be wise for those 
of us who are not " born long " in mathematics to agree that 



i 



290 Supervised Study 

while educators in the past were not infallible neither were they 
wholly wrong. The problem of geometry is not fundamentally 
one of total or even partial elimination from the program of 
studies, but rather one of painstakingly directing each pupil 
so that his type of reasoning may appear to him successful. 
This means abandoning exclusive textbook worship and launch- 
ing each pupil on the more technical processes of thinking. 

4. A knowledge of mathematics is essential to the study of 
the sciences and to the applications of these in all forms of 
engineering, building construction, industrial chemistry, 
and statistical study of social behavior as organized in 
sociology, economics, political science, and education where 
only too frequently men jump at wild conclusions without 
having facts or knowing how to interpret the facts they do 
possess. 

5. If mathematics is to awaken interest among high school 
pupils, it must be differentiated according to curriculum ends. 
This means that in high school each group of studies (curricu- 
limi) leading to a particular type of career, such as engineering, 
business, professions, home-making, etc., should stress the se- 
lection of topics and methods of study that logically serve as 
a specific prerequisite to advanced studies in mathematics. 
In other words, the proposition that pupils in high school wiU 
study mathematics more willingly and effectively if conscious 
of the practical value (which may include the cultural) of 
the type of mathematics they are dealing with seems defensible 
and, if properly investigated, probably would be adequately 
supported by evidence. Vocational mathematics — this term 
including cultural as representing effective citizenship — 
rather than disciplinary mathematics, it seems to the author, 
would help to reduce the antipathy toward the subject. 



Supervising the Sttidy of Mathematics 291 

Excellent illustrations of this discriminate curriculum thinking 
are found in Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N.Y. ; Lewis Institute, 
Chicago; Lincoln High School, Nebraska. In the first, mathe- 
matics of two year courses includes essentials of algebra, geometry, 
trigonometry, analytics, and calculus. In algebra the pupils 
begin by applying in shop work the principles of mathematics 
conmion to the work in hand. Shop and class-room are really 
laboratory and recitation rooms. Similar methods are employed 
in the Lewis Institute. In Lincoln, Nebraska, algebra, geometry, 
and trigonometry constitute a single imit in mathematics. The 
pupils are constantly dealing with this interrelationship. Pre- 
ceding work in mathematics there is an inspirational course in 
general science. The study of mathematics begins in the second 
half of the first year. Pupils who have shown no aptitude at all 
for the subject are not expected to entef the course, but this very 
freedom serves to stimulate industry, and many do enter the courses 
in mathematics. 

6. So far as the girls are concerned, there is no reason for 
excusing them from either algebra or geometry, simply be- 
cause they are unable to learn these subjects. In the chapter 
on " Individual Differences " it is shown that girls and boys 
are about equally proficient in mathematics. Woman to-day 
competes with man in practically all walks of life. She can 
become a reliable engineer and a most accurate astronomer. 
A differentiation on the basis of sex alone is hardly justifiable. 
The vocational or curriculum distinction referred to under 5 
applies with equal force to girls. Doubtless there should be a 
TniTiiTrmm of mathematics in domestic science courses, but 
girls electing other curriculums should conform to the require- 
ments of these groups. 



292 Supervised Study 

III. The Pilot Teacher of Mathematics 

Wherever tried, it has been found that supervised study in 
mathematics results in greater efficiency and in reduced re- 
tardation. The pilot teacher is all essential. Normal schools 
and similar training agencies must evolve methods of study 
supervision as well as methods of teaching ; in fact, may we 
not go even further and say that all methods of teaching must 
become methods of teaching to study? Unless the pupil 
learns how to learn, he will go through life either as the victim 
of an unreliable memory or as the half-expert delayed and 
confused by teachers who could imitate but not initiate or 
originate. Supervised study in mathematics depends upon 
teachers who know how to study algebra and geometry, and 
who are able to recognize the first feeble efforts of pupils to 
prove things in a way different from the textbook and perhaps 
more effectively than its author. 

IV. Supervising the Study of Mathematics 

I. The Assignment. Considerable space has already been 
devoted to this topic in Chapter VI. In addition to what is 
suggested there, the assignment should be brief. It is much 
more important for pupils to work a few problems correctly 
than to cover several in a less thorough manner. What is 
needed is quality and not bulk in the study of mathematics. 
The time of the assignment must be left to the teacher's judg- 
ment, but whenever given, it should be clear and so definite 
that every membet of the class has a fair chance at an in- 
telligent start. 

The assignment should be written in an assignment book or 
on an inserted page. Pupils should not be permitted to write 




Supervising the Study of Mathematics 293 

assignments on scraps of paper or carelessly in the text. One 
of the requirements in all courses of mathematics should be 
orderliness, neatness, precision. Some teachers advocate that 
assignments should be simply remembered, not recorded. 
This, however, is a doubtful procedure. 

2. Class Management in Mathematics. The usual practice 
of having the whole class go to the blackboard is indiscrimi- 
nate and useless. A better procedure observes the following 
points : 

a. Algebra problems should be solved on paper of uniform 
size, color, texture, preferably in special loose-leaf notebooks. 
The problems in the notebook should be notated in agreement 
with page and number in the text. The aim should be to 
evolve a pupil's key to the text. Problems should be classified 
as in the text. The appearance, organization, accuracy, and 
even originality evident in these books should enter into the 
class mark. 

b. The various steps in solving a problem should be num- 
bered and so referred to m class discussions. 

c. The papers should be graded rapidly in class by the 
teacher reading correct solutions and the pupils correcting 
their own or one another's papers. 

d. Special difficulties may now be selected, and pupils hav- 
ing had special difficulties should be sent to the board or 
grouped in a comer for individual instruction. The remainder 
of the class according to groups (see Chapter VI) will be as- 
signed additional problems or given assignments in practical 
applications, suggested by themselves or by the teacher. If 
the pupils can be stimulated to contribute original problems, 
the teacher will have almost reached an ideal supervised study 
period. 




294 Supervised Stvdy 

An example of this grouping is given by Parker.^ 

After the teacher had got the class started as a single group on 
the first book, and some of the fundamental ideas of geometric 
procedure had been established, the sections were organized on 
the basis of the students' records in previous work as well as 
their ability as shown in the new work. Each section was then 
assigned a comer of the room as its regular recitation place, and 
henceforth each section proceeded at its own pace through the 
geometry. The first section commonly completed the plane and 
solid parts of Wentworth's Geometry in one year. The mediiun 
section usually completed the plane geometry only (that is, five 
books), as is commonly done by classes using the simultaneous 
method. The slow section usually got through about four books, 
but most of its members managed to do this much with a fair 
degree of thoroughness, instead of being dragged over the whole 
five books in an uncomprehending way, as commonly occurs 
when the ordinary class method is used. 

e. Train the pupils to read the textbook. Much difficulty 
in mathematics is due to slovenly reading or misunderstanding 
of the words themselves. 

/. Note the errors or difficulties common in mathematics. 
The author has found the following list fairly common in five 
high schools. The types of difficulty are arranged in the order 
of their greatest frequency. 

(i) Wrong signs. 

(2) Mistakes in elementary processes of addition, subtrac- 
tion, etc. 

(3) Misreading of problems, such as omitting words or adding 
words. 

(4) Inability to visualize the conditions or "stage-setting" of 

the problem. 

* Op. cit., p. 382. 




Supervising the Study of Mathematics 295 

(5) Impatience ; if the answer is not correct the first time, the 
pupil becomes discouraged. 

(6) Too many problems to solve. Pupil either tries to work all 
of them with consequent carelessness in many instances, or selects 
the easiest and ignores the others because they seem too hard. 

(7) Inability to transfer the processes of a model example to 
other problems. Some pupils understood the model solution but 
could not construct independently equations or steps in assigned 
problems. In other words, a perfectly clear explanation does not 
mean that pupils will find the work easy. They need supervision 
in the economical transfer of explanation to their own applications, 

(8) Carelessness in copying figures or terms. 

(9) Lack of orderliness on the "work sheet" results in confusion 
and mistakes in finding the steps in their solution. Hence need of 
system, notation, supervision of study. 

(10) Hasty work resulting in the neglect of terms or the omis- 
sion of X after the coefl5cient. 

(11) Groups in working together depended on the bright ones 
who gave the correct methods and answers. Dishonesty, the 
author has found, is more common in mathematics than in any 
other subject, not excepting English composition, which is immoral 
enough. 

(12) In geometry, memorizing of the demonstrations. 

(13) Failure to understand the meaning of space relations in 
geometry and the consequent inability to make proper comparisons. 

In addition to the foregoing discovered by the author, Judd ^ 
cites other errors : 

(i) Failure to keep in mind a long series of principles necessary 
to guide in manipulating the signs of different quantities; for 
example, forgetting that a negative sign before a parenthesis 
works certain changes in the quantity within the parenthesis; 

^ Op. cit., p. 120. 



296 Supervised Study 

and losing sight of the effect produced upon signs by transposition 
from one side of the equation to the other. 

(2) Failure to see the various familiar combinations which make 
it possible to get rid of undesirable quantities on both sides of the 
equation. Pupils forget that the management of the two sides 
of an equation or of the two members of a fractional expression 
calls for a like treatment of both of the elements in the operation. 

(3) Failures to try experiments in rearrangement of quantities. 

(4) Seeking to economize by carrying on processes mentally 
when the more deliberate written statement of the same problem 
showed that they knew the principle of procedure. 

Judd calls attention also to the principal difficulties that 
pupils meet with in studying mathematics. Failure to dis- 
tinguish between knowledge of space and logical processes of 
demonstration ; inability to pass from logical demonstration 
to spatial fact ; lack of understanding or knowing the reason 
for methods used ; guessing answers ; vagueness ; inadequate 
perception and preparation. 

The foregoing errors and difficulties emphasize the need of 
having teachers who can provide conditions favorable to con- 
centration and who can devise interesting methods of drill 
so that fundamental rules become habitized. The suggestions 
already made, aiming at motivation through an analysis of the 
practical value of mathematics, may lend interest to the study. 
Charted directions, such as the following employed in the 
Bainbridge Junior High School of Richmond, Va., hanging in 
conspicuous parts of the room are very helpful. 

Percentage 

I. Read your problem until you understand it: six times if 
necessary. 



Supervising the Stvdy of Mathematics 297 

2. State exactly what you want to find : base, rate per cent, or 
percentage. 

3. Put down on paper each step in your solution. 

4. Represent the base by "X " : fot a per cent more add to "X " 
the rate per cent : for a per cent less subtract from "X" the rate 
per cent. 

5. Prove your result by working backward. 

6. Remember: 

Percentage = Base times the rate. 

T. Percentage 

^"^ R^- 

«, ^ Percentage 

Rate = — ij^ ^« 

Base 

3. The Method of Teaching must be Symptomatic. An ob- 
vious conclusion from the foregoing discussion is that the 
teacher and the method exist for the pupil and not the pupil 
for either or both of the former. It is well enough to know 
the principles of teaching and to be familiar with the history 
and manuals of methods, but the conscientious and scientifi- 
cally trained teacher knows that methods are like cures, — 
they must suit the individual cases. In other words, teachers 
must know what is wrong and why the wrong exists and then 
apply the remedy. 

4. Reviews and Examinations should test Ability to think 
and to apply Mathematical Knowledge. The real test is not 
ability to repeat definitions and rules or to work equations and 
prove stated theorems. The test here, as in other subjects, 
is one of independent application, not necessarily to a practical 
problem (although this is always preferable), but to any 
original problem. The following Cumulative Examination in 
Mathematics by Mr. Harrison E. Webb of Central Conmaerdal 



298 Supervised Stvdy 

and Manual Training High School, Newark, N.J., illustrates 
the contents of such examinations : ^ 



Suggested Questions for Cumulative Examination 

Papers 

Algebra through Progressions 

1. Show that a number is divisible by three if the sum of its 
digits is divisible by three. 

2. Given 

Solve for k- 

Find h when h = 39.27, h = 99.6, A) = 0.4, k = .000011. 

3. Fuid by a short method the value of each of the following : 

(a) (38f)2 - (i7j)^ 

(b) V 363 - 3^1 - 5^9. 

(c) VA(2r + A), where r = 4000, A = i^. 
(Obtain results correct to the second decimal place.) 

4. Derive a general formula for obtaining the principal which 
will amount to a given sum at a given rate in a given time, at simple 
interest. And find the principal when the time is sixty-four days, 
the rate 4 per cent, and the amount $1540. 

5. Find the dimensions, the volume, and the diagonal of a rectan- 
gxdar solid if three faces about one comer have areas of 108 sq. ft., 
264 sq. ft., and 198 sq. ft. respectively. 

6. If y = a-\ , find a, b, and c, if y = 41 when « = 6, 

c + x 

y = 31.91 when x = 2.1, and y = 26.45 when x = 5.4. 

7. A man pays an annual premium of $164.37 for 20 years on 
an endowment life iasurance policy. What should be his credit 

^ School Review, November, 1913. 



li 



Supervising the Study of Mathematics 299 

with the insurance company, allowing simple interest at 4 per cent 
on his payments but disregarding iQsurance cost? 

8. At each stroke an air pump withdraws one tenth of the total 
quantity of air under a bell jar. If there were 400 cubic inches of 
air imder the bell jar originally, what portion of the original con- 
tents remains after eight strokes? 

Plane Geometry 

1. Find the number of degrees, minutes, and seconds in each 
angle of a triangle if the angles are m the ratio of i, 5, and 7. 

2. Prove a law for the sum of the iaterior angles of a polygon 
of n sides, and j5nd the value in degrees, minutes, and seconds of 
each angle of a regular polygon of 48 sides. 

3. Illustrate geometrically the algebraic product oi a + h and 
a — 6 where a and h are lines. 

4. Derive a general formula for the nimiber of degrees in the 
arcs intercepted by (i) two tangents to a circle which make with 
each other an angle of a** ; (2) the three sides of an inscribed isosceles 
triangle whose vertex angle is 6**. 

5. Show how to divide a line in extreme and mean ratio, prove 
your construction, and find correct to three decimal places the 
value of the greater segment if the length of the whole line is 10 
units. 

6. Find the area of a trapezoid if the bases are 15 and 20, and 
the legs are 29 and 30. State the geometric theorems involved 
in the solution of this problem. 

7. Construct three mutually tangent circles, having given their 
three lines of centers ; and find the diameters of three such circles, 
if their lines of centers are respectively 4, 5, and 6 inches. 

8. Prove that the areas of two similar triangles are proportional 
to the squares of homologous lines, and find the distance from the 
vertex of a line drawn parallel to the base of a triangle of altitude 
20 which divides the triangle in the ratio of 3 : 5. 



/ 



300 Supervised Study 

5 . Arouse and accumulate Interest by giving High Appraisal 
to Mathematical Work. As long as pupils beUeve that here 
is a dry compulsory subject that is included for some mysteri- 
ous purpose, it is not likely that they will wax very enthusiastic 
over its pursuit. But boom it, increase its value, make it the 
mark of high achievement, not for the briUiant alone, but for 
the average, and there is likelihood that mathematics will 
become more significant. An interesting scheme of appraisal 
is reported by W. D. Reeve of the University High School, 
University of Chicago.^ 

Bulletin boards about five feet long and four feet wide made of 
cork were placed in each of the mathematics rooms; and upon 
these boards the work of the different classes in mathematics was 
posted from day to day in order that the pupils and also the visitors 
might observe what was being done. The papers to be posted 
were chosen on the basis of neatness, importance of subject-matter, 
care in development of proofs, unusually good independent work 
and special reports, . . . items of mathematical importance 
secured by either the teachers or the pupils were posted on these 
boards. . . . When exhibited work is taken down from these 
bulletin boards, it is filed under proper headings so that any par- 
ticular kind of material is always available. Some of these classi- 
fications are for the first year: algebra, geometry, correlations, 
geometric constructions with ruler and compass, use of squared 
paper, scale drawings, trigonometric work, historical material, 
recreations. . . . Geometry model and special devices for use in 
the class-room have been made by pupils in the mathematics classes 
to illustrate some theorem or to clarify some mathematical concept 
and these are a part of the permanent exhibit. 

6. Frequent and Systematic Use should be made of the 
Library. Ordinarily, library work is confined to history, Eng- 

^ School and Society ^ August 7, 1915. 



% 



Supervising the Study of Mathematics 301 

lish, etc., but Mr. Reeve outlines in the same article a valuable 
procedure. A sketch of his method will possibly suggest 
other schemes : 

a. Pupils may read a good treatment of, e.g., the introduction 
to logarithms and report to the class what they have read. 

h. Read biographies of great mathematicians. Pupils write 
brief accounts of these biographies and file them with the por- 
traits of the mathematicians. This work correlates splendidly 
with EngUsh composition. 

c. Books like Sophy Winthrop's " Sister and Saint," reflecting 
events in Pascal's life, are interesting and furnish a helpful correla- 
tion between mathematics and Uterature. 

d. Problems of camp life, outings, travel can be solved by refer- 
ence work. A boy at a summer camp wanted to know the distance 
from one shore of a lake to the opposite shore in order to lay out a 
swimming course. He was directed to books in the library on 
trigonometry and surveying. 

e. Organize a mathematical club. It will find much material in 
the library. 

/. Reference work in astronomy texts. Problems in solid 
geometry and trigonometry within the pupil's abiUty can there 
be found. 

g. Charts on fundamental theorems should be available in the 
Ubrary for consultation by pupils and beginning teachers. 

A. Organize a cUpping bureau with references to mathematical 
topics properly filed. 

L Have on hand books on methods for practice teachers, 

7. The Teacher of Mathematics must advertise the Subject 
by every Sort of Striking Media. Modem discussions on re- 
organization should not discourage teachers into beUeving that 
the battle is lost. Criticism should lead to careful self-exami- 
nation. We need to know definitely and with evidence what 



302 Supervised Study 

mathematics is good for and how it should be taught. High 
school teachers can render invaluable service by collecting 
data and by compelling careful attention and the attitude of 
real sympathy toward their claims. 

8. The Aim constantly in View should be to develop In- 
dependent Thinking. Mathematics is essentially concerned 
with comparisons. It is impossible to comparp unless we 
know definitely what is the exact meaning of the objects placed 
over against one another. There must be acute analysis and 
then, so to speak, the tjdng together or connecting all the 
similar characteristics existing between the objects compared. 
Conmion laws or principles are established or framed by study- 
ing many similarities. We may employ diagrams, figures, 
analytical pictures to this end ; but in mathematics the com- 
parison takes place verbally or by means of numbers. Super- 
vising study in mathematics means, then, directing the pupil 
through each step and noting where he is weakest and giving, 
him special instruction at that point. 

9. Class Management of Double Period in Joliet, HI. The 
head of the mathematics department in the Joliet Township 
high school reports his general method as follows: 

Theoretically, the first of the double periods is used for recita- 
tion and the second period for study of the next day's lesson under 
the supervision of the teacher. 

The uses of these two periods vary, however, according to the 
subject. 

In the first semester algebra, the first period is used for recita- 
tion, and the second period almost exclusively for supervised 
study. 

The lesson for the next day is assigned, maximum and mini- 
mum in length, and the papers collected at the end of the second 




Supervising the Study of Mathematics 303 

period. I have assigned as long lessons as I was accustomed to 
do under the old single period scheme and have found 90 per cent 
of my pupils able to hand in all the work completed. The maxi- 
mum and minimum assignments take care of the good and slow 
pupil. 

In second semester algebra, the same scheme is followed as in 
first semester algebra. Some home work is required of the pupils 
not able to keep up with the pace set by the class. 

In first semester geometry, more time is required for construc- 
tion work, and accordingly less time is left for recitation in the 
first period than in either algebra class. For this reason, some of 
the teachers use ten minutes of the second period for recitation. 
One teacher reports that, as a rule, he follows the same scheme as 
in algebra. 

In the second semester geometry classes, fifteen minutes of the 
second period is used quite often for recitation. The pupil would 
not be able to get his lesson in one period even if he had the 
opportimity of studying all the second period. 

Sometimes in the development of a new subject, all the second 
period must be used for recitation and explanation, and at such 
time the teacher has the greatest opportimity to show the pupil 
how to study. 

General Summary 

The need of understanding the problem of individual differ- 
ences is perhaps more urgent in supervising the study of mathe- 
matics than in any other subject. The teacher can easily 
become a drill master and nothing more. By industrious 
preparation of every assignment, employing a variety of 
texts, periodicals, mathematical puzzles, and by seeking ever 
for original problems among the pupils themselves, much of 
the inevitable monotony can be relieved. Whenever a prin- 



304 Supervised Stvdy 

ciple can be illustrated in practical application, this should 
be done, for reasoning can employ reality just as well as sym- 
bols or theoretical situations ! It is, moreover, fundamental 
to know what difficulties the pupils have and why they have 
them. Deal with s)anptoms and causes, — not with ideal 
mentality. 




CHAPTER Xni 
HOW TO SUPERVISE THE STUDY OF SCIENCE 

I. General vs. Special Science Courses 

Supervised study has been referred to as the laboratory 
method. It would seem, therefore, that Uttle need be said 
about supervising the study of the sciences, for they already 
are employing the ideal method. A few considerations, how- 
ever, demand attention. The present discussion on special 
vs, general science has arisen as a form of reaction toward the 
claim by science teachers that science is practical ; it is by far 
the best means of training pupils to think (one hears uproar- 
ious laughter from the classicists!), and furthermore the 
scientific method alone leads to truth. The author once en- 
gaged in a useless debate with a biologist who claimed that Ufe, 
love, ambition, hate, aesthetic enjoyment, flash of insight, etc. 
are so many varieties of chemical reaction. He loved his wife 
and children because ions or electrons entered into peculiar 
combinations stimulating certain modes of responses. (It 
is easy to see how feeding a man to make him loving is a direct 
application of this physiologico-chemical-affection theory. 
Ergo, increase domestic science courses.) 

Careful study of the secondary school program of studies 
and evidence from many fields of industry have quickened 
the suspicion that little science is a dangerous thing and that 
X 30s 



3o6 Supervised Study 

too much sdence may lead to perverted specialization. For 
this reason the organizing of general science courses in place 
of the usual physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, etc., in high 
school seems to hold a strong advantage. Again, there are a 
variety of plans available. The following may prove sug- 
gestive : 

1. The earth as a planet. Giving in a brief general way some- 
thing of the universe — its magnitude, distance of stars, etc. 

2. Water and its uses. 

(a) Composition, showing electrolysis and synthesis. 

(b) Different physical states, and appUcations of each. 

(c) Climatic influences. 

(d) Commercial relations. 
3- Air. 

(a) Physical properties. 

(b) Chemical properties. 

(c) Temperature changes and the seasons. 

(d) The water and the air. 

(e) Weather. 

(/) Dusts, molds, and bacteria, 
(g) Insects. 

4. Work and energy. 

(a) By running water. 

(b) Machines. 

(c) Energy and its transformation. 

(d) The sun as a source of energy. 

(e) Energy for plants and animals. 

5. The earth's crust. 

(a) Effect of natural forces. 

(b) Structure and composition of soils. 

(c) Origin of soils. 

(d) Necessary constituents to support life in the soils. 

6. Magnetism and electricity. 




How to Supervise the Sttidy of Science 307 

(a) Compass. 
{b) Earth as a magnet, 
(c) Simple battery, 
(rf) Conductors and non-conductors. 
{e) Simple applications. 
7. Sound and light. 

(a) Simple experiments to show relative velocities. 
(6) Applications. 

n. The Aim in studying Science 

Any who have watched pupils at work in science courses 
may well wonder what cultural or practical value can come 
from such loose- jointed endeavors. Scientific vision ? Never. 
Love of science? Statistics don't so indicate. Scientific 
method? Perhaps. Love of nature? The pupil instinc- 
tively does love nature. Understanding of natural laws? 
Possibly. There can be little doubt that something definite 
must be kept in view, and this something needs to be within 
the pupil's reach. A reasonable aim seems to be to awaken in 
the pupil an inteUigent interest in his natural environment, — 
an interest that ultimately may lead him to investigate how 
nature ever increasingly can be harnessed into service for man. 
But this ultimate goal, it will be admitted, is far beyond the 
reach of many. The average citizen needs to know enough 
science to make him respect the systematic advance of progress. 
He should be persuaded to respect the scientist, the inventor, 
the explorer as much as he does the financier or the soldier. 
Careful and patient gropings for more Ught must be regarded 
as the usual method of reaching greater truth. The individual, 
even from a practical point of view, should know the insect 
life of his community, its dangers or its advantages, and how 



3o8 Supervised Sttuly 

to respond to each set of conditions. The " fly-swatting '' 
campaign is an illustration. The war on the mosquito is 
another. One of the deepest regrets of the author's life is his 
all too meager knowledge of trees, birds, plants, flowers, the 
fimdamentals of physics and chemistry. Man should know 
his environment. Progressive citizenship demands it. The 
ancient exhortation "Let me write a nation's song and I care 
not who make her laws " may well read in these days : " Let 
me produce finer crops, fairer flowers, safer buildings, lighter 
conveniences, readier modes of travel, prettier homes, more 
beautiful cities, better food, and I care not who makes the laws, 
for a happy people require only a minimimi of laws.'' Happy 
living simply means living at peace with nature. 

A panorama of what science has done — an excursion into 
the wonderland of invention, discovery, research — should be 
democracy's gift to every citizen. The courses in science may 
or may not produce better thinkers — let us hope they do ; 
they may or may not develop Edisons, Teslas, Marconis, 
Burbanks, Pascals, and Darwins — let us pray they will ; but 
if the high school boy and girl can be so directed in their 
study that they will respect their environment because they 
know something of its wonders, a vast contribution to society's 
welfare has been made. 

III. Suggestions for Directing the Study of Science 

Two lines of direction are necessary : 

I. The Laboratory. Attention should be focused on the 
following details of the laboratory method : 

a. The Experiments. Pupils do not find these always in- 
teresting. They are frequently more difficult than author 



How to Supervise the Sttuly of Science 309 

of textbook or teacher anticipates. These conditions are due 
to the following limitations in the pupil : 

Sensory and Muscular Inaccuracy. Handling apparatus 
frequently results in breakage, waste, inaccuracy, etc., due in 
the main to the pupil's lack of trained vision or to inadequate 
muscular control. He must form such habits of accuracy of 
manipulation as are necessary for his present course. Highly 
refined dexterity, of course, should not be expected. 

Vagueness of Purpose, The experiment means nothing un- 
less the problem is clearly defined. Again, the assignment 
must be scrupulously exact. No pupil should engage in an 
experiment until he knows the problem so clearly that the 
process of the experiment is to him a progression toward a 
well-known end. This end need not include special applica- 
tions at first ; there should always be present an element of 
surprise. 

Lecture demonstrations by teacher or by some capable pupil 
may well vary class experiments. Wherever time can be saved 
without neglecting needful " self-discovery " methods, this 
should be done. 

Orderly procedure is important. Too much emphasis cannot 
be placed on the need of organization. This depends upon 
analysis of the problem and the proceeding by carefully 
planned steps. The practice of following an outline and 
checking each step is essential. Results should be recorded 
opposite each step checked. 

h. Notebooks. A convenient type of notebook consists of 
" Day-tickets " ; that is, each pupil has a hook on which he 
hangs the notes of each experiment. Later these " tickets" 
are placed in a loose-leaf notebook for reference. Filing 
experiments, as indicated on page 186, is also recommended by 



3IO Supervised Sttuly 

some teachers. Parker ^ gives excellent illustrations of other 
forms.^ Certain things should be avoided in the keeping of 
notebooks : 

Too much measurement. 

Too many drawings. Analytical drawings are preferable. They 
indicate careful thinking. 
Too many references. 
Too many problems. 

c. J. E. MilVs Directions for Laboratory Work, Professor 
J. E. Mills, consulting chemist in Columbia, S.C., has pre- 
pared a careful list of laboratory directions which are appli- 
cable in any high school.* 

(i) The laboratory course should be designed to increase the 
pupil's interest in his work, to increase his power to see, think, and 
do for himself, and to make him acquainted with the chemicals, 
methods of manipulations, reactions, and lawsj at first hand. 

(2) Have the pupil keep a laboratory notebook, and insist on 
the use of reasonably good English, on neatness, and on clearness, 
and that all entries shall be made when the experiment is performed. 
Full directions, some explanations and questions, are useful in 
the laboratory manual, but strictly guiding subheads are to be 
avoided. A loose-leaf system is an advantage. 

(3) The attention of the teacher must be given repeatedly to 
each individual student while in the laboratory. 

(4) Some problems should accompany the course in chemistry. 
These problems should always be practical and should be made 
more of a laboratory than a class-room exercise. 

(s) Do not have much exact measurement. A student may 

^Op. cit., pp. 452, 453. 

' W. C. Greer, The Teaching of Chemistry in Secondary Schools, or School 
Review, 1906, Vol. XIV, pp. 282-286. 

' Johnston and others, Hi^h School Education^ 191 2, p. 194. 



How to Supervise the Study of Science 311 

measure a thing exactly and know nothing about it. In fact his 
mind is easily diverted from the real problem to the mechanical 
details of the measurement. Some science courses have been 
aptly called "starvation courses in measurements." 

(6) Sacrifice some of the experiments "in the book" for some 
more nearly home-made. The added interest will repay the 
trouble. 

(7) Make the student think, but do not expect him to rediscover 
chemical laws, or to prove them. A little consideration of any 
law will probably show you that you could not, if turned loose in 
the best chemical laboratory in the country, prove the law in six 
months. Let the experiments illustrate the laws; they will help 
the student to remember and to understand them. 

(8) Sometimes the student gets more results than he can take 
care of. He may not select the one that you had in mind. Do not 
expect him always to draw your conclusion, without your assist- 
ance, from an experiment assigned by you. 

2. Outdoor Observation and General Reading. While the 
laboratory is necessary, as much time as possible should be 
spent outdoors in studying trees, plants, flowers, crops, stock, 
birds, insects, industrial science as in the various kinds of mills 
where the principles of physics and chemistry are applied, lay 
of the land, weather conditions, etc. Training pupils to ob- 
serve things is all important. The usual excursions where 
teachers and class spend the hour or an occasional day out- 
doors might well be multiplied. Such excursions might be 
planned in the summer time especially. Extending the school 
year a month and devoting this extra time to scientific observa- 
tion is advocated by some educators. The Boy Scout and 
Camp-fire Girls organizations do much of this, but it is espe- 
cially a school task that would bring the school closer to the 
community. 



312 Supervised SPudy 

a. Original Problems. A large variety of problems, dis- 
covered by the pupils themselves or investigated by them 
in group assignments, will provide motivation and practical 
application of methods and subject matter. The following 
lists by John G. Coulter and by Lewis ElhuflE oflFer many 
suggestions : 

The Coulter List 

(i) Water: Its state and changes. The course of a drop. 
Evaporation. Molecules. Condensation of steam. Solid, liquid, 
gas. Frost and dew. Distillation. Rainfall. 

(2) Evaporation: Kinetic theory. Molecular motion. Flow 
of solids. Saturated atmosphere. Perspiration. Loss of heat 
by evaporation. Hmnidity. Dewpoint. 

(3) Effects of water on earth's surface. Erosion. Movements 
of earth's crust. Effect of water on distribution of plants. To- 
pography. Glaciers. 

(4) Solutions: Solvent and solute. Osmosis. Sugar and 
starch. Importance of solution in life processes. Solution of 
gases ; air in water. 

(s) Man's supply of water: Wells and springs. The under- 
ground region. Chief facts as to the earth's interior. Artesian 
wells. 

(6) Suction pump : atmospheric pressure. Study of barometer. 
Relation to weather. Torricelli's experiment. 

(7) Archimedes' principle: water pressure. Specific gravity. 
Laws of liquid pressure. Water works. 

(8) Water power: Transformation of energy. Hydraulic 
motors. Turbines. 

(9) Steampower : Principles of steam engine. Water and steam 
power compared as to the forces involved ; i.e., gravity and heat. 

(10) Water and agriculture : Uses of water in farming. Irriga- 
tion and drainage. Roots and water. Application of osmosis. 




How to Supervise the Sttuly of Science 313 

(11) Origin of soil: Necessity of soil in connection with food 
production. Organic and inorganic compounds. Minerals. Fac- 
tors in rock weathering. 

(12) Kinds of soil: Various bases of classification. Tillage. 
Alluvial soil. Flood plains. Glacial soils. Water retention. 

(13) FertiUty and soil life : Bacteria. Cycle of organic and in- 
organic. Factors of fertility. Use of fertilizers. 

(14) Mechanical work: Simple machines. Principle of doing 
things gradually. Inclined plane. Levers. 

(15) Work and energy : Gravitation. Forms of energy. Con- 
servation of energy. Transmission and transformation. Po- 
tential and kinetic energy. Newton and law of universal gravita- 
tion. Tides. Surface tension. Capillarity. 

(16) Heat: Study of familiar heat phenomena. Discovery of 
fire. 

(17) Measurements of heat : Thermometer. Calorimeter. Spe- 
cific heat. 

(18) Heat and cold: Freezing of ice-cream as basis for illus- 
tration of principles. 

(19) Some effects of heat: Expansion of water in freezing. 
Convection currents. 

(20) The atmosphere : Its general nature. Its effects on solar 
heat. Its composition. 

(21) Water and air compared: Mixtures and compoimds. 
Atoms and elements. Chemical changes. 

(22) Heat and the atmosphere: Radiation, conduction, and 
convection. Their effects on weather. 

(23) The seasons and the solar system: Revolutions of the 
planets. Effects of the inclination of earth's axis. The equinoxes. 
The zones. 

(24) Winds and weather: Interpretation of weather maps. 
Kinds of winds. Land and sea effects on winds. 

(25) Economic importance of winds, rains, cyclones, clouds, 
tornadoes. 



314 Supervised Study 

(26) Heating and ventilation. Study of air phenomena in- 
doors. 

(27) Combustion : History of its interpretation. The phlogis- 
ton theory. Principles of combustion as illustrated in burning 
of candle and care of furnace. 

(28) Light, color, and sound: Light compared with heat 
Radiant energy. The spectrum. Other light-phenomena. 

(29) Some effects of light: Photography. Photosynthesis. 

(30) Food and the nutritive cycle: The transition from inor- 
ganic to organic and the reverse. Carbohydrates, fats, proteids. 
Protoplasm. Respiration. Oxidation. (This constitutes the 
''bridge" to the study of organisms as basic material.) 

The Elhuff List 

Simple home chemistry : Easy tests for distinguishing adds, 
bases, neutral salts, and their action upon one another. Soa^ 
making and soap characteristics, hard water and economic methods 
for softening it. Chemistry of baking, methods of using leavening 
agents and why they are used. 

Preservatives: Harmless ones and how to use them ; those which 
are injurious and how to avoid them. 

Disinfectants : Those easily used in the home and how. Use of 
heat as a disinfectant in cooking and for pasteurizing milk. 

Habit-forming agents : Stimulants in common use, as tea, coffee, 
cocoa, and many so-called soft drinks. Narcotics in common use, 
as tobacco, alcoholic drinks, opium, and cocaine compoimds. 

General effect of heat, use of the thermometer, heating of build- 
ings, ventilation of home and school, weather conditions and 
weather maps and reports. Use of the barometer, clothing accord- 
ing to weather, amount and kind. 

Foods: Kinds, costs, comparative nutritive values, cooking, 
fireless cooker, buying of foods, home economics. 

Methods of purifying water in the home, simple properties of 



How to Supervise the Study of Science 315 

gases, refrigeration at home and in storage houses, ice-making and 
its use as a cooling agent. Distillation, its uses and its products 
used at home. 

Simple machines : Enough to imderstand how to use the com- 
mon mechanical devices. City water supply and purification; 
how and why. Street cleaning ; best methods and why. Clean- 
liness about the home. 

Light : To imderstand the use of simple optical instruments and 
cameras, and how to care for the eyes. Also to learn a few astro- 
nomical facts and something about colors and the rainbow. 

Sound: Its nature, cause, and speed. Simple musical instru- 
ments and the nature of hearing and the care of the ears. 

Plant growth : Its nature, conditions for growth, plant propa- 
gation at home, and man's relation to plant life. 

Animal development: Types from the lowest to the highest 
forms, relation of animals to plants, man's relation to both, diseases 
caused by both, and man's place in nature. 

h. Recent Additions to the Fortune of Knowledge. Acquaint- 
ance with the origin, originator, and principles of the following 
inventions and discoveries would certainly add to the pupil's 
culture and also serve as illustrations of other problems dis- 
cussed in class. 

One Hundred Things Not Known Thirty-Five 

Years Ago^ 

1. X-Rays. 7. Antiseptics. 

2. Radium. 8. Submarines. 

3. Pianolas. 9. Gas engines. 

4. Asbestos. 10. Skyscrapers. 

5. Liquid air. 11. Parcels post. 

6. Harvesters. 12. Ball bearings. 

1 National Cash Raster Co. Also Journal of Education.^ October 21, 1915. 



3i6 



Supervised Study 



13- 
14. 

IS- 
16. 

17- 
18. 

19. 

20. 

21. 

22. 

23- 

24. 

2S- 

26. 

27. 

28. 

29. 

30- 
31- 
32. 

33- 
34. 
35- 
36. 

37- 

38. 

39- 
40. 

41. 

42. 

43- 
44. 

45- 
46. 



Reflectoscopes. 
Vacuum brakes. 
Power elevators. 
High-speed steel. 
Fireless cookers. 
Vacuum bottles. 
Canning factory. 
Vacuum cleaners. 
Electric furnaces. 
Industrial hygiene. 
Steel construction. 
Department stores. 
Color photography. 
Smokeless powder. 
Telephotography. 
Electric locomotives. 
Telegraphy tape printers. 
Rotary printing presses. 
Electric street railway cars. 
Automatic shoe machinery. 
Automobile fire equipment. 
Aluminiun. 
Aeroplanes. 
Air brushes. 
Seismograph. 
Motorcycle. 
Gas mantles. 
Stereopticon. 
Pasteurization. 
Automobiles. 
Block signals. 
Carpet sweepers. 
Tube railways. 
Bertillon system. 



47. Asphalt paving. 

48. Addressographs. 

49. Janney couplers. 

50. Safety matches. 

51. Pneimiatic tires. 

52. Industrial education. 

53. Electric heating. 

54. Pneimiatic appliances. 

55. Moving pictures. 

56. Electric welding. 

57. Hot dining plates. 

58. Pneimiatic tubes. 

59. Automatic typewriters. 

60. Adding machines. 

61. Wireless telegraphy. 

62. Pneumatic mailing tubes. 

63. Picture post cards. 

64. Electric cooking utensils. 

65. Minimum wage scale. 

66. Industrial physical educa- 

tion. 

67. Industrial welfare work. 

68. Turbines. 

69. Monorail. 

70. Acetylene. 

71. Dictograph. 

72. Mailometer. 

73. Hydroplanes. 

74. Kinetophone. 

75. Air purifiers. 

76. Paper towels. 

77. Kinemacolor. 

78. Merten's press. 

79. School gardens. 



k 



How to Supervise the Sttuly of Science 317 



80. Telautography. 

81. Boys' gardens. 

82. Photo-engraving. 

83. Cash registers. 

84. Paper milk bottles. 

85. Maxim silencer. 

86. Smoke consumers. 

87. Hydroaeroplanes. 

88. Fireless locomotives. 

89. Electric lighting. 

90. Measuring pimips. 

91. Typecasting machines. 

92. Wireless telephony. 



93. Offset printing presses. 

94. Household heating plants. 

95. Commercial storage bat- 

teries. 

96. Commission government. 

97. Reenforced concrete. 

98. Industrial safety appli- 

ances. 

99. Miners' electric safety 

lamps. 
100. Sanitary drinking foim- 
tains. 



General Summary 

The trend seems to be toward general science courses. 
Whether or not these will prove advantageous, it doubtless is 
true that the pupil in studjdng science needs to be introduced 
gradually to the material and the methods of science. Lab- 
oratory methods must be supplemented by outdoor observa- 
tion. Knowledge of his environment and how to use it by 
scientific aids is essential to awakening interest in the things 
of science. While the methods of laboratory procedure may 
not of themselves "spread " over into other fields, no one will 
doubt that acquaintance with and training in the inductive 
and deductive modes of reasonings can fail to arouse demand 
for evidence and thereby reduce the all too prevalent accept- 
ance of superstitious explanations. 



CHAPTER XIV 
HOW TO SUPERVISE THE STUDY OF LANGUAGES 

I. The Most Workable Aim 

With a few exceptions the methods of studying any for- 
eign language are essentially the same. It is not necessary, 
therefore, in this brief discussion to treat Latin, German, 
French, and Spanish under separate heads, save where 
illustrations of methods are given. Language study corre- 
lates easily with the study of history and literature, and it 
may become feasible, especially in dealing with the modem 
languages, to correlate them with courses in industrial science. 

The ever recurring question of " Why study this subject?" 
must be answered carefully 5 for, as indicated elsewhere, the 
teacher's aim will, of course, affect the method employed — 
both in teaching and in supervising study. The usual reasons 
for studying language are familiar enough. It is not so much 
a question which of these methods is the best as it is to select 
an aim which is workable in the high school with the greatest 
possible eflBiciency. Is the aim disciplinary? — then we have 
the traditional stressing of grammar, much translation, and 
long terms of drill work. Is the aim pronunication and speak- 
ing? — then detailed attention to phonetics and the direct 
method is required. Is the aim historical and social ? — then 
language is supplemented by the study of customs, costumes, 

318 



How to Supervise the Study of Languages 319 

architecture, and history of the people whose language is being 
studied. Is the aim literary ? — then the pupil is directed to 
study literature, and the effort is made to introduce him 
as soon as possible to the masterpieces of the foreign 
tongue. 

While none of these aims needs wholly to exclude the others, 
it nevertheless is important to have an aim toward which 
progress is easier and more advantageous than perhaps some 
other aim. The disciplinary point of view can be dismissed 
as being at least doubtful. The social aim is important, but 
the pupil can get just as much information about foreign 
peoples without spending so many hours on language study. 
There remain three values : the ability to speak, to read foreign 
languages, and to more easily handle English with a backgroimd 
of Latin and Greek. Again appraisal is diflicult. The ability 
to speak and imderstand other languages is becoming more 
and more indispensable to men of world views. Reading 
other literatures is aided by translations, but only a small 
amount of foreign literature is so available. As for better 
understanding the English vocabulary by a knowledge of 
Latin, there is doubtless considerable truth in this claim. 

It would seem that inasmuch as language, being a form of 
self-expression, introduces one to the viewpoints and attitudes 
of other people, every citizen, especially in the coming days 
of closer intimacy with Europe and South America, should 
know one or two languages besides his own. If a choice 
must be made between eliminating either languages or mathe- 
matics, the latter must make room for even more language 
study. The most defensible claim for the languages is based 
on their enlarging one's acquaintance with other peoples more 
intimately through a knowledge of their literature, and also 



320 Supervised Study 

on the development thereby of a higher appreciation of one's 
own nationality in custom and speech. 

I. The Relation between Latin and English. A suggestive 
investigation by Mr. Lynn H. Harris^ yields conclusions 
that in the main can be agreed to by the less enthusiastic 
supporter of Latin. Mr. Harris writes : " If Latin were 
taught less as a dead language, with perhaps less stress on its 
purely mechanical side, and more as being in intimate and 
vital relation to our living English tongue, not only would 
the Latin courses be better patronized, but English compo- 
sition would receive a healthy and desirable stimulus." 
Doubtless accurate knowledge of Latin spelling is an aid to 
English spelling, and acquaintance with Latin definitions 
suggests English meanings of derivatives. 

Recent exhibits in high schools showing in multicolor and 
multiform detail how many common words in English are 
derived from Latin are certainly informing. Without wish- 
ing to seem imfriendly to Cicero's noble speech, one cannot re- 
frain from the query as to whether this is the only or even the 
best means of learning English. Mr. Harris's results in his in- 
vestigation are hardly convincing. 82.44 per cent of the pupils 
who had studied Latin one year did better than those who had 
studied no Latin at all, 82.13 per cent of the latter spelling a list 
of words correctly. But of those who had studied Latin two 
years only 80.20 per cent did well, and 81.52 per cent of the 
three-year group spelled with accuracy. Of the four-year 
group 90.10 did well, — a gain of only 8 points over those 
who had not studied Latin at all. These results are hardly 
in favor of four years of Latin. 

Professor Starch of the University of Wisconsin in his 

^ School and Society, August 14, 1915, pp. 251, 252. 



How to Supervise the Study of Languages 321 

study ^ found " that the study of foreign languages materially 
increases a pupil's knowledge of English grammar, but only 
slightly increases his ability in the correct usage of the English 
language. Pupils who had had 10 to 15 years of foreign lan- 
guages made a score in grammatical knowledge of 63 ; while 
pupils who had had 2 to 5 years of foreign language made a 
score of 47.8, a difference of 32.6 per cent in favor of the former 
group. The corresponding difference in correctness of usage is 
only 6.4 per cent. Starch concludes from his whole study that 
there is no basis for holding that foreign language study pos- 
sesses any disciplinary value or results in any derived benefits. 

Unquestionably, faithful study of any language will prove 
valuable in the study of another ; for the subject is fascinat- 
ing, and its interrelationships are alluringly full of interest. 
The greater one's familiarity with many languages, the easier 
it is to learn others. One gradually acquires a language 
taste. Words come to have a charm due to long association, 
and this intimacy of cultural insight into language enriches 
one's vocabulary and variety of phrasing so that one's na- 
tive tongue is considerably improved. CJoethe was right 
when he wrote, " Wer fremde Sprachen nicht kann weiss nichts 
von seiner eigenen." 

The revised syllabus for a three-year high school course in 
German, presented at the German section of the Twenty- 
seventh Educational Conference at the University of Chicago,^ 
indicates that reading and grammar requirements have been 
reduced. Composition in the third year has been made 
lighter. The syllabus is reproduced here for the convenience 
of those contemplating a revision of language courses. 

* School Review^ December, 1915, pp. 697-703. 

* School Review J November, 191 5. 
y 




322 Supervised Study 

German I 

Reading 
6o-icx> pages. 

Composition 

Drill in construction of sentences based on text. Free reproduc- 
tion of very simple reading matter, oral and written. Some trans- 
lation into German of English based on text read. 

1. Thoroughness in all phases of the work is necessary. 

2. Special attention should be given to pronunciation. 

3. Grammatical forms and rules of grammar should be learned 
through emphasis put on their application in the oral and written 
composition mentioned above. 

4. The memorizing of a few easy poems is desirable. Incident- 
ally, this may be a great aid in the acquiring of a correct pronim- 
ciation. 

Grammar 

Declension of the defiinite and indefiinite articles, demonstratives, 
and possessive adjectives. 
Noun declension. 

Adjective declension : weak and mixed. 
Declension of personal pronoims. 

The interrogative and relative pronoims should be explained, but 
thorough drill in their use should be reserved for the second year. 
Verbs: 

Principal parts of the most common strong verbs (about 40). 
Conjunction of strong and weak verbs in five tenses. 
Polite form of the imperative. 
Present and imperfect tenses of the modals and their most 

common meanings. 
The reflexive verbs, present and imperfect. 
Prepositions with the dative, the accusative, and with both the 
dative and the accusative. 



Hew to Supervise the Study of Languages 323 

Word order : 
Normal, including the use of aber^ aUeitiy sondem^ denn^ oder, 

andund. 
Inverted order. 

Transposed order, with special emphasis on the use of als, 
weil, wenn, and doss. 
No topic need be presented in all its details, but whatever is 
taken up should be done thoroughly. The mastery of noim, adjec- 
tive, and verb forms and of word order is of especial importance. 

German n 

Reading 
100-150 pages. 

Composition 

Questions and answers on simple texts should lead to the oral 
and written reproduction of the same. Translation into German 
of connected EngUsh based on text read may be substituted in part. 

Grammar 

A. The following subjects should be thoroughly taught and 
drilled: 

Review of grammar of German I. 

Frequent review of adjective declension and word order, 
by means of "German-German " exercises. 

Inflec.tions not completed in German I, as follows : nouns ; 
adjectives — strong declension, comparison ; relative and 
interrogative pronoims ; verbs — principal parts of addi- 
tional strong verbs and the most common irregular weak 
verbs, occurring in the reading ; the most common verbs 
requiring the dative. 

B. The following topics may be explained and some drill may 
be given. It cannot be expected, however, that proficiency can 



/ 



3^4 Supervised Study 

be attained at this time in their use in oral and written composi- 
tion. Further drill must be given in succeeding years : 

Modals, and verbs used like the modals, in perfect tenses 
with accompanying infinitive, not including their use in 
dependent clauses. 

The passive voice, five tenses. 

The subjunctive mode in indirect discourse and imreal con- 
dition, and the first conditional in connection with these. 

The most conmaon prepositions with the genitive. 

German III 

Reading 

About 300 pages. Texts reconmaended for German 11 may well 
be used for more rapid reading in German III and for outside 
reading. The magazines Aus Nah und Fern and Die Woche are 
recommended for use throughout the course at the discretion 
of the teacher. The classics and the formal study of literature 
should not yet be attempted. It should rather be the aim to cul- 
tivate an inteUigent appreciation of the works of the modem 
authors read in class. 

Composition 

Some free reproduction of texts read and sunple theme-writing 
on topics suggested by the text. 

For more thorough work m free reproduction, simpler texts 
should be chosen ; as, for example, Sterne's Geschichten vom Rhein. 

Grammar 

Review of grammar and thorough drill on topics imder "B" in 
German II. 

Further details of grammar as the need for them arises. 



How to Supervise the Study of Languages 325 

II. Methods of Approach 

There is no need to discuss in detail the usual methods em- 
ployed in teaching language. The Grammar, or Traditional, 
Method is generally discarded. The Natural Method has 
many devotees. The Psychological seems the most advan- 
tageous, but, in spite of its seeming scientific authority, has 
serious disadvantages. The direct, or inductive, method at 
present occupies the center of the stage. But names must not 
confuse the teacher into a biased attitude. Probably there 
is something fundamental in all of these methods. Be this 
as it may, there is general agreement that the pupil must be 
directed in his studying of language in certain definite proc- 
esses. These will now be discussed. 



III. Supervising the Study of Language 

I. How to Begin, There is need in the beginning for the 
teacher to realize that the pupil must acquire language 
experience before he can make much progress. This means 
that as rapidly as possible the pupil should gain consider- 
able knowledge of the rudiments of language work such 
as vocabulary, construction, translation, before he under- 
takes a more thorough study of these language factors. 
In the beginning of any language study (and by begin- 
ning is here meant the first year) it probably is best to 
avoid translation from English into the foreign language. 
Joynes and Meissner recommend this, and Victor does the 
sajne. 

a. The Gurlitt Method. A simple but effective procedure 
makes use of what might be called the cimiulative conversa- 



326 Supervised Study 

tional method.^ The following illustrations indicate the 
general form of what is known as the Gurlitt Method 

Sum, ich bin (I am) 
(Quintus, Marcus, Titus pueri.) Collftquium. 

1. Q. Cur laetus es, Marce? 

2. M, Laetus sum, quod magister mens diligentiam meam 
laudavit. 

3. r. Quid magister tuus recitavit? 

4. M, Homeri, poetae Graeci, f abulas recitavit. Esnsne periti 
linguae Graecae? 

5. Q, Non linguae Graecae, sed notarum Graecarum periti 

SUMUS. 

6. T. Fabulae poetarum Graecorum etiam parvis pueris notae 

SUNT. 

7. EsTne magister tuus vir Graecus? 

8. Non Graecus vir est, sed diu in Graecia fuit. 
Conjugation : Indicative present of sum, I am 

StLm stimus 

Ss ^stis 

Sst siint 

Endings : The vocative (case of address) is like the nominative. 
Exception : The vocative of the masculine of the 2d declension 
in us ends in i; nom. Marci^; voc. Marc^ (i), pp. 14, 15. 

Word lists are kept by each pupil as a catalogue of the new 
words that have been learned. For example, the foregoing 
lesson is listed as follows : 

colloquium — conversation. 
dUigentia — earnestly, diligently. 
fabtda — fable 

^ See Lateinische Fibel Sexia, Wiegandt and Griehen, Berlin, or Steckert 
and Co., New York, 1908. 



How to Supervise the Study of Languages 327 

poda — poet 

lingua — speech 

meus, a, um — my 

Puus, a, um — your, etc., etc. 

Review lists according to declension and conjugation with 
the number of the lesson are additional aids. For example : 

First Declension 

{a) Feminine 

20. dUigentia — diligently 

fabtda — fable 
lingua — speech 

Second Declension 

(a) masculine 
None of this declension appeared in lesson 20. 

(b) neuter 
20. coUoquium — conversation, etc., etc. 

It is important that the pupil be introduced entertainingly 
to grammatical structure, and that interesting provisions be 
provided for drill, review, organization, and originality. 

The first year is in many respects the crucial test. Then 
there may be aroused either love for or hatred toward lan- 
guage work. Too much paradigm work, too much writing, 
and constant drill on syntax will deaden the liveliest interest. 
Much time should be spent on the reading lesson. Ability to 
read simple prose or foreign newspapers and advertisements 
creates confidence. What is needed is this self-confidence 
that rests securely on being able to do some things well, how- 



328 Supervised Study 

ever few they may be. If language is worth studying at all, 
it should begin early and continue for several years. But 
in this prolonged period of study the bulk of the work, authori- 
ties believe, should deal with language as literature that can 
be easily understood and appreciated. 

b. Method of Supervision in Joliet, III. The following re- 
port of the method employed in the department of German in 
the High School of Joliet, Illinois, illustrates in some detail the 
procedure in supervising the study of any foreign language : 

Supervised study in the first year modem language classes is 
mainly responsible for the markedly improved results over those 
of former years. Supervised study necessitated the double period 
and was introduced into the modern language department almost 
five years ago. During this time a plan has been evolved for 
making the best possible use to the student of the two periods. 

The class in beginning German averages six hours per week. 
Probably seventy-five per cent of the work is oral, consisting of 
drill in pronunciation by reading and individual answering of 
simple German questions. The six or eight hours of written work 
include copying of German text, translation into German of short 
English sentences, and dictation. 

On a particular day the period begins with oral questions, some 
of which the pupils have had before, on "Was wir haben," p. 35. 
The aim, primarily, is to pave the way for the development of 
Lesson V. The paving blocks, which in this case are the demon- 
strative adjectives, "dieser," "jener," and "welcher," are laid in 
such a way that they might not prove stumbling blocks later on. 
The questions on "Was wir haben" are directed as follows: 

Question: Hast du einen Bruder, James? 
Answer: Ja, ich habe einen Bruder. 
Q: Hast du nur einen Bruder? 
A : Ja, ich habe nur einen Bruder. 



I 



How to Supervise the Study of Languages 329 

Q: Hast du einen Bruder, Russell? 

A : Ja, ich habe einen Bruder. 

Q: Hast du nur einen Bruder? 

A : Nein, ich habe mehr als einen Bruder. 

Then follows the statement : " Jener Knabe (pointing to James) 
hat nur einen Bruder. Dieser Knabe (signifying Russell) hat 
mehr als einen Bruder." A few more examples are used, such as : 
"Dieses Madchen hat einen Gelben," u. s. w. Then came the 
question: "Welches Madchen hat einen gelben Bleistift?" The 
teacher makes use of the vocabulary already learned by the pupils 
and asks questions for about ten minutes requiring the use of 
"dieser," " jener," and "welcher" in the pupils' replies. 

Perhaps twenty-five minutes of the period has been used thus 
far. The teacher now sends all the class to the board for rapid 
work in review on verb forms and drill in the use of the possessives. 
At the close of the first period she opens the door and windows, 
and allows pupils a recess of three minutes. 

After the gong for the beginning of the second period has 
soimded, the class repeats in concert two short verses they have 
recently learned, illustrating the accusative : 

"Die Katze fangt die Maus. 

"Der Himd bewacht das Haus," u. s. w. 

Pupils then give the selection separately. 

Again the pupils are sent to the board this time to write from 
dictation the teacher's German question and then their own answer 
immediately below. The questions, though based on this selec- 
tion, again bring into use "welcher," "dieser," and "jener." 

For example : 



Q 

A 

Q 

A 

Q 



Welches Tier bewacht das Haus? 

Der Hund bewacht es. 

1st dieses Tier kleiner oder grosser als die Katze? 

Es ist grosser als sie. 

Fangt jener gr5sse Himd eine kleine Maus? u. s. w. 



{ 



330 Supervised Study 

For the rest of the time (about twenty-five minutes) the teacher 
assigns (i) ten sentences to be written. 

At the end of the double period the papers with the written 
exercise are handed in. This is aU independent work. 

During the preparation of the work the teacher watches to see 
that pupils are actually reading and studying the assignment. 

In conclusion it should be emphasized that the points on which 
the successful use of this system hinges are : 

(i) Here, as in all recitations, definite aims, and a simple, direct 
method to attain these aims. 

(2) A change in the kind of recitation work so that pupils are 
not tired from sustained effort ; i.e., neither too much oral work of 
the same sort, nor a prolonged stay at the board. 

(3) A short recess — three minutes. 

(4) Enough time set aside in the second period for the assimila- 
tion of new ideas, and for necessary preparation of the next day's 
recitation. 

2. Pronunciation. In the presence of a rather heated dis- 
cussion on this phase of language work, it is difficult to choose 
from among the "phonetidsts," "travelists," and "mutists" 
— those who believe in the science of pronunciation by an 
international code ; those who just as ardently hold that only 
by traveling and living among foreign people can one acquire 
dialect, pitch, intonation, rhythm, and pronimciation peculiar 
to each country; and those who just as firmly argue that 
especially in high school pronimciation is of minor importance. 
In Latin no one knows accurately how the Romans spoke; 
in foreign languages there are nimierous dialects (as in 
America), and for these reasons it is best to stress reading 
for the sake of literature only. 

Again one's aim must be acoirate. Language study cer- 
tainly ought to include speaking or at least ability to pro- 



t 

i 



Haw to Supervise the Study of Languages 331 

nounce. By the science of phonetics American teachers can 
lay a fairly stable foundation of pronunciation whose finer 
development must depend upon contact with the foreign 
bom. Mr. Philip N. Churchman of Clark College^ offers 
the following suggestions : 

(i) Intensive study of pronunciation should be concentrated 
into a few weeks without any accompanymg language work. 

(2) Class meetings should be increased and hours of prepara- 
tion diminished. This really means devoting the whole period 
to pronunciation and employing extra study periods for the same 
thing, always in the teacher's presence. Private work is less 
important in this kind of studying. 

(3) Private practice should take place only after the teacher is 
reasonably sure that the children imderstand how to pronounce. 

(4) Expect some study of theory, except by young children ; i.e., 
the ability to describe differences in pronunciation. 

(5) A moderate us6 of phonetics or some simple alphabet that 
gives a visual representation of the sounds. For example, in 
French: veille (vfey), veuille (veuy), vaille (vay). Ah! que c'est 
beau (4ks^b6) ; ga me ferait de la peine (sam fr^ dla p^n). Pho- 
netics simply means the omission of all silent letters and the repre- 
sentation of the sounds by a clear and consistent notation ; thus 
doight == dwa, quand = ka.* 

3. Memory Work and Vocabulary. However one's 
methods may seem to be an improvement over others, it is 
impossible to avoid the difficulty involved in learning a 
foreign vocabulary. Memory and imitation are essential 
in learning any language. Gouin has done excellent work in 
this field. The recent volume by Dr. Gonzales Lodge, The 

* School Review^ October, 1914, pp. 545-554. 

' See also E. B. Babcock, ''The Use of Phonetics in Teaching Elementary 
French," School Review^ November, 1913. 



I 



332 Supervised Study 

Vocabulary of High School Latin, contains 2000 words serially 
numbered. Supervising the study of Latin by this aid may 
follow this order : 

Each pupil is given a notebook numbered 1-2000. In each 
lesson the new words of the next lesson are written opposite the 
appropriate nimiber in the notebook. The pupils are required to 
make their own dictionary. The additional assignment of mak- 
ing a Ust of EngUsh derivatives from scribo, for example, and its 
prefixes, ad, can, in pre, is also helpful. 

Writing opposite each foreign word the English equivalent 
with similarities indicated is very helpful. Examples of 
one tj^e of this method are given in the discussion on memory, 
page 212. The German prepositions aus, bei, mit, nach 
were associated by one pupil in the sentence " the house by 
the meat marketJ^ Mnemonic devices are arbitrary and 
frequently too complicated, but each pupil should be en- 
couraged to construct such schemes. Vocabularies must be 
learned in some manner, and a good system of mnemonic 
association is helpful. For example : 

mensa — "wen so/" (table) 
pue//a — '^ella^^ (girPs name) 
satis — satisfy (enough) 
unbegriindet — nndergrounded. 
geschworen — swore. 

Such associations are not always possible, but when fairly 
evident and not too strained, they serve well. Pupils should 
be encouraged also to find relations with other foreign lan- 
guages they may know. The resemblances between Scan- 
dinavian and German are manifold either by spelling or by 
pronxmciation. For example : 



How to Supervise the Study of Languages 333 





Scandinavian 


German 


English 




forlora 


verloren 


lose 




kosta 


kosten 


cost 




karta 


Karte 


chart 




gifva 


gieben 


give 




tvifvel 


Zweifel 


doubt 



Similar relations are of course numerous between Latin, 
French, Italian, and Spanish. 

An excellent means of enlarging one's vocabulary quickly 
is to compare the English Bible with a translation in the lan- 
guage being studied. The familiar editions of Polyglot Bibles 
are helpful. The importance of the pupil gaining as quickly 
as possible a goodly list of foreign words must not be over- 
looked. The niceties of grammatical form come more slowly, 
but first there must be something to work with. 

4. Organization and Translation, Any one who has 
studied a foreign language knows how confusing and discour- 
aging are the first attempts in translation. The pupil finds a 
strange word, consults the glossary, refers to peculiarities of 
syntax, and in a labored, piecelike mode of manufacture he 
struggles toward a meaning. The author of the selection 
would often be amazed at the gargoyle meanings resulting 
from such efforts. The pupil has no background of organiza- 
tion. He does not know what the whole thing means, and 
he fails to grasp the fact that men think in Latin, German, 
French, etc., very much as they do in English. There is 
great need of directing the pupil at this point. 

a. The Kingsley Outlines. The following plan is suggested 
by the Kingsley Latin Outline Sttulies^ and indicates what 
can be done in German, French, or Spanish.^ 

^ Palmer Co. * See also Edi^coHon, December, 191 5. 



334 Supervised Study 

I. Title of the oration — Oratio pro Arckia. 

1. Meaning of the oration. 

2. Place in Cicero's collection or relation to other orations. 

3. The persons involved — who they are. 
n. Historical sketch — Occasion of the oration. 

ni. The oration — 

1. Introduction. 

a. Chapter i. Main points. 

(i) Whatever accomphshments and knowledge I 
possess I owe to Archias. 

(2) By that skill in oratory which Archias taught 
me, I have been of great service to the state. 
Therefore, I ought " to help and save the very man 
from whom I have received that gift which has 
enabled me to bring help to many and salva- 
tion to some." 

b. Chapter 2. Main points. 

(i) Apology and justification for the character of 
this oration. 

(2) I beg that I may be allowed to depart from the 

general style of forensic pleading and speak 
briefly of the study of polite literature and 
refined arts. 

(3) By such an oration I hope to make you realize 

what a desirable citizen Aulus Licinius is ; and 
to make you feel that he is worthy, even if he 
were not one, of being now made a citizen. 

2. The body of the oration. 

a. Cicero's defense of the poet Archias, etc., etc. 

In the beginning such an outline should appear on the 
blackboard and later by reference to transla- 
tions the pupils should make their own outlines. 
Only by having some understanding of the 
organization can the pupil appreciate the sig- 



How to Supervise the Sttuly of Langtuiges 335 

nificance of what he translates. He is thus 
provided with a background ; he knows where 
he is going ; he is not lost in a jungle of forms 
and meanings. 

6. Method at Leland Stanford. Professor M. M. Skinner of 
Leland Stanford Jr. University ^ gives a detailed account of 
his method of teaching pupils to read German. In sub- 
stance the method involves the following steps. In sight 
reading one pupil is sent to the board, where he writes in sen- 
tence order all the words of the passage he knows, or such words 
could be xmderlined in the books. Space is left for the supply- 
ing of words not imderstood. By calling attention to similari- 
ties between the strange and other familiar words, and by 
gradually building up a framework of meaning the unknown 
words were added, the instructor only rarely telling the 
meaning outright. It is an excellent illustration of super- 
vising the study of a new passage. 

c. The Use of Translations. Much imnecessary criticism 
has been directed against pupils for translating by means of 
" ponies." Some teachers are broad-minded enough actually 
to recommend such helps and then resort to a variety of means 
to test the pupil's knowledge of forms. It is far better to 
permit such helps openly than to connive at their secret use. 
Pupils are going to use them, whatever the teacher's attitude 
may be. When used properly, they are a valuable aid to a 
clear organization of the material. 

5. Conversation. The ability to speak modem languages 
can be developed quite easily by a method like the following : 

a. Draw, for example, the picture of a house, naming at first a 
few of its details. 

^School Review ^ October, 1909, pp. 529-541. 



336 



Supervised Sttidy 



b. The teacher pronounces each word as she pomts to the object. 

c. The class repeats the words. 

d. The teacher speaks a simple sentence, using each word. 

e. The sentence is repeated by the class. 

/. The sentence is now written by teacher and next by the class. 

g. Later other parts of the house are added and the same pro- 
cedure repeated. 

h. Reviews are conducted each day by conversation about the 
house, and gradually other subjects are developed in a similar 



La Racine 



La Fenetre 



UnMui 



\> 



-^o? 



iC^ 



La Maison 



manner and used in conversation. In this way travel, buying 
and selling, home life, school life may be interpreted in foreign 
terms. 

6. Dramatization and Magazine Work. In many high 
schools needful application is provided by the pupils writing 
plays, stories, news items, and editorials in the foreign lan- 
guage. The following illustrations serve as models of the 
tj^e of work. The play was written by a second-year (Jerman 
class composed of secondary pupils and college students.^ 

^ Teaching^ published by Kansas State Normal School, Emporia, Kan., 
Vol. I, No. I, August, 1914. 



Haw to Supervise the Study of Languages 337 



ROTKAPPCHEN 

I Akt 

(Die Mutter in einer kleinen Kuche. Das M&dchen spielt draussen.) 

Die Mutter (halt die rote Kappe hinter sich) : Mein liebes 
Kind ! Komm' her, ich habe dir etwas Schones zu zeigen. 

Das Madchen {}duft in das Zimmer) : Was hast du, Miitter- 
chen? Zeig' es mir. 

Die Mutter (zeigt es dem MUdchen) : Wie gefallt das dir, mein 
Kmd? 

Das Madchen : Setz' es mir auf den Kopf . {LUuft zum Spiegel.) 

Die Mutter : Es steht ihr ganz gut, mit den blauen Augen, 
den roten Wangen imd dem blonden Haare. 

Das Madchen {Iduft zur Mutter und umarmt sie) : Wie wunder- 
schon es ist ! Hast du das fiir mich gemacht? 

Die Mutter : Ja und die Leute werden dich von jetzt an 
Rotkappchen nennen ! 

Das MAdchen {tanTi herum) : Wenn nur die Grossmutter es 
sehen konnte 1 

Die Mutter: Das wurde ihr grosse Freude machen, denn sie 
ist sehr krank, also darfst du ihr etwas zu essen bringen. 

Das Madchen {klatscht in die Hdnde) : Soil ich einer Korb 
dafur holen? 

Die Mutter : Ja, imd auch eine schone, weisse Serviette. 

Das Madchen {holt diese Sachen) : Hier sind sie. 

Die Mutter: Lege zuerst die Serviette in den Korb und 
darauf den schonen Kuchen ; gelb wie Gold. 

Das Madchen : Was hast du noch fiir Grossmiitterchen ? 

Die Mutter {geht zum Schrank und holt ein Tdubchen): Hier 
ist ein Taubchen. Lege es neben den Kuchen. 

Das Madchen : Soil ich eine Serviette Uber diese guten Dinge 
legen? 



338 Supervised Study 

Die Mutter: Ja, und noch siisse Trauben und goldgelbe 
Orangen darauf . 

Das Madchen: Mutter, ist das alles? 

Die Mutter : Ja, das ist genug. Nimm den Korb und trage 
ihm sorgfaltig. 

Das Madchen {kUsst die Mutter) : Auf wiedersehn. 

Die Mutter: Auf wiedersehn, mein Kind, und beeile dich 
durch den Wald. 

2 Akt 

(Das Mftdchen in dem Walde) 

Das Madchen (filr sich): Ach, wie schon sind diese Blumen 
in dem Walde. {Sie Iduft hin und her und pflUckt die Blumen.) 
Hier sind weisse Blumen imd dort sind rote und auch blaue imd 
gelbe. Jetzt habe ich einen schonen Strauss den ich der Gross- 
mutter bringen werde. Das wird ihr grossen Freude machen. 

(Inzwischen kommt der Wolf herein.) 

Der Wolf {fiir sich) : Das ist Rotkappchen. Das sch5ne 
Kind ist ein guter Bissen flir mich. {Zu dem Madchen:) Wo 
gehst du hin? 

Das Madchen : Ich werde meine Grossmutter besuchen. 

Der Wolf: Wo wohnt, denn, deine Grossmutter, liebes Kind? 

Das Madchen: Sie wohnt in dem Hauschen am Ende des 
Waldes imd sie ist krank. 

Der Wolf: Ich halte nicht mehr auf. (Lduft in den Wald 
hinein.) 

Das Madchen (fiir sich) : Ich muss mich beeilen. {L&uft ab.) 

3 Akt 

(Im Hause der Grossmutter wo sie im Bette liegt.) 

Die Grossmutter {hort ein Khppen an die Tiir): Konmi 
herein ! 



How to Supervise the Study of Languages 339 
Der Wolf {triU in das Zimmer) : Bist du krank, Groszmutter ? 

{Der Wolf kotnmt an des Belt und zieht die Vorhangezurack.) 

Die Groszmutter : Ja, aber was willst du heir? 
Der Wolf : Dich f ressen ! 

{Springt auf das Belt und verschlingl die arme Frau,) 

Der Wolf {fUr sich) : Ich setze mich die weisse Haube auf 
und lege mich in das bett und decke mich zu. So warte ich auf 
Rotkappchen. 

Das Madchen {tritt in das Zimmer der GrossmuUer) : Guten 
Morgen, Grossmutter ! Ich bringe dir etwas Gutes zu essen und 
zu trinken. 

Der Wolf: Eh? 

Das Madchen {jgeht an das Bett und zieht die Vorhdnge zurilck) : 
Grossmutter, wie wunderlich du aus siehsti Was hast du fur 
grosse Ohren? 

Der Wolf : Dass ich dich besser horen kann. 

Der Madchen: Und was hast du fur grosse Augen, Gross- 
mutter? 

Der Wolf : Dass ich dich besser sehen kann. 

Das Madchen : Ei, und was hast du f iir grosse Hande ? 

Der Wolf: Dasz ich besser packen kann. {Springt aus dem 
Betty packt Rotkappchen und versMingtes, Der Wolf legt sich 
wieder in das Bett, schlaft und schnarcht.) 

Der Jager (fiir sich der am offenen Fenster steht) : Wie die alte 
Frau schnarcht ! Ich will sehen was ihr fehlt. (TriU in die Stuhe 
und kommt an das Bett.) 

Der Jager (leise fUr sich, indem er erschrocken zuriickfdhrt) : 
Was finde ich hier — einen Wolf ? Das bose Tier muss ich gleich 
erschieszen. Vielleicht hat er abe die Grossmutter gefressen. 
Also nehme ich mein Messer imd schneide ihm den Leib auf. 
{Er tut es.) 



340 Supervised Sttuiy 

Das Madchen {springt heraus) : Ach, wie dunkel wax es in 
dem Leibe des Wolfes. 

Die Grossmutter {springt dann heraus) : Wie froh bin ich 
wieder hier zu sein. 

Das Madchen {hoU den Korb) : Hier, Grossmutter, ist etwas 
Gutes und Schones zu essen. 

Die Grossmutter : Mein liebes Kind, setze alles auf den Tisch 
und wir woUen davon essen und trinken. 

Das Madchen: Hier sind auch schone Blumen. {Riecht an 
den Blumen.) Wie schon sie duf ten ! 

Das Madchen : Ich muss nach Hause eilen und der Mutter 
alles erzahlen. Auf wiedersehen, Grossmiitterchen. {Ab,) 

Der Jager : Ich habe dem Wolf den Pelz angezogen imd werde 
denselben mitnehmen. Lebewohl ! 

The following illustration of the publication by high school 
pupils in Crawfordsville, Ind., shows how Latin may be used 
interestingly in an informal type of exercise. The extracts 
indicate the versatility of the yoimg editors. 

Scientia Domestica. — Scientia Domestica per hunc annum fuit 
acceptissima. Hoc studium vero fuit magno usui mihi. In sex 
primis dictatis rudimenta fructus conservandi et coaguli faciendi 
cognovimus. 

Pueri Societatis Athletica Multitudinem Vehementer Convoca- 
verunt. — Omnes pueri societatis athleticae ad deligendos duces 
anno poster© convenerunt. "Preston Rudy" multo et divino 
impetu imperator est delectus, et "Fredericus Hunt" etiam proxi- 
mus imperio est delectus. Magistratus librari et aerari praefecti 
constituti sunt et "Delhertus Clements" ad hos habendos est 
delectus. . . . 

Conflagration calamitosissima multis mensibus in " Indianapolis'' 
fuit incendium aedifici magni "D. O. Langen" centum septuaginta 
quinque milibus thaleris amissis. 



^ 



How to Supervise the Sttdy of Languages 341 

7. Schemes of Directions and Procedure, The following 
methods are in actual practice and, therefore, may prove 
helpful to others. 

a. Plan in Richmond, Va. Superintendent E. E. Smith 
of Richmond, Va., — southern division, — employs the follow- 
ing plan : 

Methods in Languages for First Year 

Latin, Spanish, French, and German 

I. When pupil is reciting, face the class. 
n. The pupil's reply to a question must contain a complete 
thought and a complete sentence or discourse. Example: Ad- 
jectives should not be written or given alone, but should be given 
with nouns and almost always the entire sentence. 

III. The teacher must not repeat the reply. 

IV. Speaking the language wherever possible is most important. 
The idea is to develop the "language sense" in the pupil. For 
example : If a specific effort is being made to get a thought, then 
a word or two which is not exactly right need not necessarily be 
corrected. 

V. It is expected that pupils shovdd show growth in using 
the foreign vocabularies both orally and in writing, and this should 
be measured fairly accurately. 

VI. Frequently, children should read aloud whole paragraphs 
expressively to the class from the language. No translation should 
be given, but questions asked in the foreign language should be 
answered from the printed page. 

VII. Avoid too much conscious attention to grammatical forms, 

except as they occur in the pupil's experience in EngUsh grammar. 

VEIL Grammatical ideas, other than English, are developed by 

using the necessary constructions often in sentences and drilling 

by means of the well-known sentence wholes in which these occur. 



342 Supervised Study 

IX. Results can best be attained by the teacher's thinking in 
terms of the language and hence getting and using : 

A. Variety in procedure, such as animated conversa- 

tions, questions, requests, commands, songs, etc. 

B, Devices such as matches or "bees" of various kinds, 

particvdarly vocabulary matches, varying in detail, 
illustrative map work, little stories to be read and 
translated at a hearing, stories told and appre- 
ciated, composite stories made by the pupils or 
*' original compositions," pupils asking one another 
questions, games and the like. 
C Dramatic exercises to eventually emerge, so to speak. 

X. Written exercises should be given only to illustrate certain 
principles which have been inductively taught, and this should 
be the final fixing of the ideas in the pupil's mind. It is thought 
evident that adequate and sufficient oral work has been given so 
that the written work is smooth and not laborious. It should 
be directed so that mistakes might not be actually executed or 
''bUnd alleys" followed, as is done when written alone. 

XI. Teach vocabulary in manner advocated for spelling 
(Circular No. 14).^ Children must keep a personal Ust. The class 
Ust is also necessary. Teachers are responsible for knowing the 
total vocabulary, at any time, with which the class has been pre- 
sented in terms of different parts of speech. 

XII. No written work on blackboard should be left which con- 
tains mistakes, 

b. A brief symposium by several teachers. 

1 This is important : (i) Present the word by writing it on the board, 
(2) pronounce it, (3) rub it ojff, (4) have children pronounce it (not in chorus), 
(5) have sentences given using the word or phrase^ (6) have the word or phrase 
used a number of times that day in writing or translation, and (7) provide for 
sujffident and frequent recall of the words from time to time. 



V 



How to Supervise the Study of Languages 343 

German 

The German department conducts reviews by returning cor- 
rected test papers and making thepa the basis of discussion. 
The following description shows the way these papers are 
discussed : 

I return a test on the subject of prepositions and model auxili- 
aries, the work of six weeks. All mistakes have been marked on 
the paper. I call on a pupil to translate ''for whom." If he says 
"fiir wem" I ask him to give the list of prepositions which govern 
the accusative, and also the declension of wer; then he corrects 
his mistake. I call on another pupil to translate "with whom," 
"against whom," and then "for what," and "against what." 
The next phrase "from it," leads to a discussion and drill on such 
forms as dafur, davofiy and daraus. The third word, meineswUlefiy 
leads to a review of the personal pronouns, and a drill on the use of 
a noim preceding the preposition. 

When it has been possible, I have given examples involving 
the grammatical principle and then have had the pupils deduce 
the rule. For example, when the lesson was on prepositions gov- 
erning the genitive, I wrote upon the board several illustrative 
sentences, and the pupils with Uttle explanation readily saw that 
such prepositions governed that case. Then, after the preposition, 
I gave a definite time for study, during which I required the pupils 
to learn all the prepositions governing the genitive and to use them 
in sentences. Then a short recitation followed, which for the most 
part was spontaneous and enthusiastic, owing, I think, to the super- 
vised study. 

I have had the pupils study, and I have tried to correct their 
methods of studying. Personally, I feel that the correct method 
is so different with different minds that the only way to help a 
pupil is to watch him and then make suggestions for a change. 
Too many pupils depend on memory, and then memorize in poor 
ways. Even in language the reasoning power should be used. 



• 



344 Supervised Sttuiy 

One or two poor pupils have improved their memorizing power by 
being required to write their rules, thus joining their eye and 
motor-muscle impressions to their ear impression. I have tried 
to have every German study-period typical of how the pupils 
should study at home. 

Another teacher, in training pupils to form right habits of study, 
lays stress upon concentration. The first half of the extra period 
is to be used as a study-period. The teacher assigns a definite 
amount which he knows can be prepared in a given time. Abso- 
lute concentration upon a particular portion of the lesson, along lines 
which are at first indicated, is insisted upon. The other portion 
of the study-period is then given over to recitation upon the sub- 
ject just studied. In this way the teacher is in a position to know 
which pupils must be taught how to study if any results are to be 
obtained. 

A second point kept prominently in mind is the necessity of 
teaching children how to attack a lesson. The modus operandi 
differs with the teacher and the class. Instruction — direct and 
by example and suggestion — has been tried. All of the teachers 
seem to have found the presentation of a new lesson during this 
special period exceedingly helpful. 

Sometimes I read aloud an anecdote taken from the textbook, 
or from some other book, and have the pupils translate from hear- 
ing. Sometimes I give an account of something connected with 
the lesson ; for example, the life of Helen Keller proved interest- 
ing on the day the pupils added to their vocabulary the words 
"bUnd," "deaf," and "dumb." Sometimes I ask the pupils 
what they see in the schoolroom or from the school-room win- 
dow. I teach the new word by writing it on the board and explain- 
ing the meaning, either by gesture or by famiUar German words, 
rarely by the use of a dictionary. Often a pupil who has difficulty 
in learning from the printed page excels in the oral work. 



k 



How to Supervise the Stvdy of Languages 345 

Latin 

If we have been studying lessons with long or diflScult vocabu- 
laries, or when a study of a conjugation or a declension has been 
completed, we have a vocabulary match. We give the nomina- 
tive, genitive, and gender of the nouns, principal parts and synopses 
of verbs, type and comparison and adjectives, and formation and 
comparison of adverbs. These matches are conducted in two 
ways, either by ''spelling down," or by "jumping," and then at 
the end of the period numbering for the next trial. A pupil who 
stays head two days in succession is on the honor roll and goes to 
the foot to start up in Une again. 

We frequently have sentences on the different constructions of 
the previous week, and after a great many sentences have been 
given by the teacher, as quickly as possible, each student is asked 
to make a good English sentence using only words and construc- 
tions that can be translated into Latin by the class. One student 
is asked to read his sentence and another to translate it, if it is a 
good sentence. If it is a good sentence containing forms unknown 
to the class, the reader is asked to translate it. At other times the 
sentences are put on the board for the whole class to translate, 
and then the work is corrected. The classes have also written 
original Latin compositions. The sentences were, of course, of the 
first and second reader class, but the classes seemed to enjoy the 
work, and received a Uttle benefit therefrom. 

We have used the additional study-period chiefly to break new 
ground. By this I mean we reserve this lesson chiefly for the de- 
velopment of a new topic, for practice for sight work, for translat- 
ing, or for analysis of advanced English sentences. In other words, 
it is chiefly preparatory in nature. Any necessary memory work, 
on which such development is based, is arranged for on the previous 
days. Then, when the class is assembled, we examine and lay 
out our course for the following lesson or lessons during the week. 
From one third to one half of the first year work in Latin consists 



346 Supervised Study 

of such advance explanation, so that we have been able to use 
this period advantageously in this way. The recitation is usually 
by volunteers, and, though no record of marks is kept as on other 
days, the pupils are quite as ready and interested as with their 
assigned work. 

To be more specific, in vocabulary work we often take up a new 
vocabvdary and read it over, separating stems from endings, and 
deciding to what declension or conjugation each word belongs and 
why. When that is decided, we name the model word like which 
it should be inflected, and mention any irregularity in the inflec- 
tion. Following this, we sometimes decline to conjugate it to fix 
the forms more surely in mind. After reading a new vocabulary 
in this way, we translate new sentences containing these words, 
using the vocabvdary freely for reference. 

In considering Latin sentences we generally read at sight, call- 
ing on anyone to supply forgotten words, phrasing, and pointing 
out relations indicated by endings. In case of hesitation, guidance 
is furnished by calling attention to the most important clues to 
the meaning, the subject, the verb, the object, and the division of 
the sentence into clauses, as shown by the introductory word and 
the verb, or the division into phrases indicated by a preposition 
and its object or by two or more in agreement. Time is saved and 
a better chance given to slow pupils in this work if the sentences 
are assigned and a minute or two given for their preparation, with- 
out reference to notes or vocabulary, so that the recitation is 
prompt. Sometimes we read a short anecdote from the Latin. 
Each student is given one word for which he is responsible; a 
moment is given for preparation, so that the new words may be 
found in the vocabulary and the construction decided upon. Then 
the story is read in EngUsh, each student contributing his word. 
This keeps the pupils thinking, for no one wishes to break the 
chain. One week one of the boys brought to the class an original 
anecdote, entitled "Caesar in London in 1910." 

Sometimes the classes are divided into two sections, those above 



How to Supervise the Study of Languages 347 

65 per cent forming one section, tiiose below, the other. Section 
I is given lists of sentences previously prepared to be translated 
into Latin or English, while the pupils of the other section are 
being drilled on the paradigms and principles of syntax. The 
last part of the period is spent in reviewing the work of the first 
section. 

We have tried to enliven our iminteresting textbook somewhat 
by telling or reading a Uttie about the Romans, their houses, and 
their games, and the education of the boys and girls. Since 
Roman history has been omitted from the curriculum of the first 
year, we have tried to give the pupils a Uttie background for the 
English composition by explaining briefly the terms "consul," 
"praetor," "republic," etc., which they find in their lessons. 

General Summary 

There are so many excellent texts and methods that in this 
chapter the attempt has been made simply to call attention 
to some of the helpful forms of procedure during the supervised 
study period. It is of utmost importance that teachers 
make use of the fact that the pupil needs a language back- 
ground before he can make much progress. Details of gram- 
miar should be served in sentence form — nourishment must 
be made palatable. Ingenuity is just as important in the 
classroom as in the kitchen. Moreover, teachers should not 
become idolators of any general method. Variety, individual 
adaptation, revision are important attitudes in language 
instruction and supervision. 



CHAPTER XV 
SUPERVISING THE STUDY OF LITERATURE 

I. The Purpose of Literary Study 

None of the fine arts is equal in popularity to that of litera- 
ture. In no other channel has man been able to express 
himself with so great an abiandon, and with the range of in- 
fluence possible through the printed page. The ability to 
read is craved by all men who have caught a glimpse of a 
finer world of ideas. And this ability to read, coupled with 
skiU in writmg, has done more to brmg the race together than 
perhaps any other agency. Man instinctively craves self- 
expression in some form, and because writing or authorship 
is partly the possession of all there is a greater output of 
literature than of any other form of art, with the possible 
exception of music. 

It ought to be apparent why high school pupils should study 
literature. Several reasons may be assigned. 

I. To gain Knowledge. Information is conveyed by 
means of literature as a fine art or merely as a vehicle of 
communication. Ability to read understanding^ a newspaper, 
a textbook, a report, advertisements, encyclopdia, etc., is 
essential to active citizenship. The examples cited may not 
be regarded as artistic forms of literature, but they are rap- 
idly finding a place among the arts. Books on travel, science, 

348 



Supervising the Sttuly of Literature 349 

philosophy, biography, and history are certainly literature, 
as works by Dean Howells, Lyell, Darwin, Fabre, Hegel, 
Rousseau, J. S. Mill, Macaulay, Morley, and Woodrow Wilson 
indicate. They are replete with information in attractive 
literary style. 

2. To enrich One's Vocabulary. Studying the dictionary 
doubtless has value, but no one would recommend this as the 
best means of acquiring a rich store of words. Reading now 
this, now that author, eventually provides one with s3nionyms, 
forms of expression, and terms that are serviceable both for 
speaking and for writing. 

3. To cultivate Style. Literature is a form of self-ex- 
pression, and therefore each writer's style will possess a cer- 
tain amoxmt of individuality. The pupil should not aim to 
imitate the style of another beyond the adoption of certain 
principles that supply rhythm, clearness, or briUiance. Ac- 
quaintance with the style of a Walter Pater, a Montaigne, a 
Maeterlinck, or a Van Dyke is favorable to cultivating one's 
own. It is almost impossible to become a fluent or readable 
writer without having browsed among great books. 

4. To relax the Mind. The arts interpret life in order 
that life may be appreciated and enjoyed. Just as the or- 
ganism needs a certain amount of sweetmeats, so the mind 
craves the pleasant stimulus of entertaining literature. It 
may be the delightful observations of The Spectator, the 
frolics of Pickwick, the whimsical comments of Queed, or 
the stirring adventures of Don Quixote and Sherlock Hohnes. 
They introduce us to other worlds where we sit in the grand- 
stand as it were and see the play in the arena. The taste 
for this form of relaxation must be educated away from 
mere sensory excitement to the rest and recreation estab- 




3 so Supervised Study 

lished by new and noble ideas, attractive pictures of life and 
living. 

5. To appreciate the Beautiful. The man of books who 
reads many authors, and absorbs their best ideas, craves the 
environment of ideas in which they move, and experiences 
day by day the subtle transformation of his own personality 
into a composite self made up of influences radiated by many 
minds. There is a fascination in the doctrine of the Platonic 
ideas that life here is a copy of the permanent and beautiful 
yonder, and that our world and our personalities become nobler 
and more attractive as we approach the ultimate excellence 
of the beautiful ideas. High school pupils, soon to be swept 
into the maelstrom of struggle for careers and independence, 
need to carry with them the vision of something stabler and 
worthier than the torrential flux of things. The sordid, mean, 
compromising, selfish, ugly are so many forms of a lack of 
appreciation of highest values. The study of literature, 
therefore, must separate the veil between the cheap and the 
glorious. It must elevate the individual from the wilderness 
of mere sense enjoyment into the realm of desire for harmony, 
symmetry, simplicity, and imity of beautiful living. If it fails 
to accomplish this, then the course has ignobly failed. 

In dealing with this question of purpose Dr. C. Alphonso 
Smith, xmder the title of What Can Literature Do for Me?^ says : 

1. It can give you an outlet — "The masters have found you 
and you have found yourself." 

2. It can keep before you the vision of the ideal. 

3. It can give you a better knowledge of hmnan nature. "All 
literature reveals unconsciously something of the men who made 
it and something also of the people who like or dislike it." 

^ Doubleday, Page & Co., 1914. 



\ 



Supervising the Study of Literature 351 

4. It can restore the past to you. 

5. It can show you the glory of the commonplace. 

6. It can give you the mastery of your own language. 

11. What High School Pupils like to Read 

An interesting sidelight on the purpose of the study of 
literature is thrown by an investigation on the type of read- 
ing preferred by high school pupils. Lancaster ^ in his study 
of the question found that 812 pupils preferred to read novels ; 
797, poetry; 67, essays; 31, history; and 30, travel. It is 
interesting to find in this connection that Dr. Smith ^ gives 
a list of fictive characters that should be known by all students 
of literature. These are fifteen in number : 

Ulysses in Homer's "Iliad" and especially in his "Odyssey." 
King Arthur in Malory's "Morte d'Arthur" and Tennyson's 
"IdyUsof theKing." 

Beatrice in Dante's "Divine Comedy." 

Don Quixote in Cervante's "Don Quixote." 

Falstaff in Shakespeare's "Henry IV" (Parts I and H) and 
"Merry Wives of Windsor." 

Hamlet in Shakespeare's "Hamlet, Prince of Denmark." 

Robinson Crusoe in Daniel Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe." 

Faust in Goethe's "Faust." 

Leatherstocking in James Fenimore Cooper's "Leatherstocking 
Tales." 

Pippa in Robert Browning's "Pippa Passes." 

Becky Sharp in Thackeray's "Vanity Fair." 

David Copperfield in Dickens's "David Copperfield." 

Silas Mamer in George Eliot's "Silas Mamer." 

Jean Valjean in Victor Hugo's "Les Miserables." 

* "Psychology and Pedagogy of Adolescence," Ped. Sem., 1897, pp. 61-128. 

• Op. cit. 



352 Supervised Study 

Uncle Remus in Joel Chandler Harris's "Uncle Remus: His 
Songs and His Sayings," and "Nights with Uncle Remus." 

Teachers of literature in high school could doubtless make similar 
lists by getting a large number of preferences from their classes^ 
What characters ought they to know? Surely it is important to 
introduce young people to the nobiUty of Uterature, past and 
present, rather than to bore them with minute interpretations of 
passages to be written in notebooks. 

III. How TO STUDY Literature 

One of the most important questions at this point is how 
much to require the pupil to know in the course on literature. 
There is abroad the impression that pupils are engaged in too 
many details in the English courses, or that appreciation of 
literature is spoiled by overanalysis of books and characters. 
Viewed from the standpoint of practical service (not neces- 
sarily a commercial term), it would seem that high school 
pupils ought to study literature in order to meet the following 
needs : 

1. A broad knowledge of the history of literature in its relation to 
the modem history. The one interprets the other. 

2. An understanding of the difference between a novel, a short 
story, and a play. 

3. How to judge a piece of literature. 

4. How to read with understanding and feeling. 

5. The memorizing of poems or other selections. 

What should be aimed at is not so much a rigidly developed 
knowledge of detailed contents of any particular series of 
books as accurate knowledge of the part literature has played in 
various historical periods, a familiarity with prose and poetic 
form so that reference to them in literature or in conversation 



Supervising the Study of Literature 353 

can be easily xinderstood ; the intelligent criticism of a book, 
so that when asked by one's friends to judge a book the indi- 
vidual can state why the particular judgment is given ; and 
the delightful accomplishment of being able to read to others 
some book that they perhaps do not have time or inclination 
to read. 

I. A Broader Course of Reading. To arouse and maintain 
interest in the study of literature it is necessary to revise the 
course of study followed in many schools. Such a revision 
was made by Mr. H. O. Church, principal of the J. Sterling 
Morton High School, Cicero, 111.^ Four fields of literature 
were covered, viz.: fiction, history, science, poetry, and 
belles-lettres. The following list omits the fourth year because 
as far as possible there is a duplication of the first college year 
English at this time. Pupils who expect to enter college are 
required to study only three years English, all others are 
required to take four years. During the fourth year, be- 
cause a replica of the first college year in English, science 
books are omitted. 

First Year 

First Semester 
Fiction 

Dickens : Nicholas Nickleby 

Dickens : Dombey and Son 
History 

Franklin: Autobiography 
Poetry 

Arnold : Sohrab and Rustum 

Bryant: Selections 

Bryant: Ulysses 

* School Review, September, 1913, pp. 461-466. 

3 A 

A 



354 Supervised Study 

Science 
Burroughs : Birds and Bees 
Burroughs : Sharp Eyes and Other Papers 

Second Semester 
Fiction 

Dickens : Old Ciuiosity Shop 

Scott: Ivanhoe 
History 

Parkman : Oregon Trail 

Irving: Alhambra 
Poetry 

Lowell : Vision of Sir Launf al 

Browning: Selections 
Science 

Burroughs : Squirrels and Other Fur-Bearers 

Burroughs: Afoot and Afloat 



Second Year 

First Semester 
Fiction 

Blackmore : Loma Doone 

Hawthorne : House of Seven Gables 
History 

Parkman : Conspiracy of Pontiac 

Prescott : Conquest of Mexico 
Poetry 

Shakespeare : As You Like It 

Shakespeare : Twelfth Night 
Science 

Higginson : Three Out Door Papers 

Lyell : Travels in America 



k 



Supervising the Study of Literature 355 

Second Semester 
Fiction 

Scott : The Talisman 

Scott : Quentin Dnrward 
History 

Lincoln (Tarbell) : Speeches and Writings 

Brown : Epoch Making Papers in United States History 
Poetry 

Shakespeare : Julius Caesar 

Shakespeare : Henry V 
Science 

Tyndall : Glaciers of the Alps 

Burroughs : A Bunch of Herbs and Other Papers 

Third Year 

First Semester 
Fiction 

Eliot : Silas Mamer 

Thackeray : Henry Esmond 
History 

Fiske : Critical Period of American History 

Motley : Peter the Great 
Poetry 

Tennyson ; Idylls of the King 

Shakespeare: Macbeth 
Science 

Darwin : Voyage of the Beagle 

Thoreau : Kata.hdin and Chesuncook 

Second Semester 
Science 
Huxley: Lay Sermons. L. 25 

Darwin : Earth Worms. R. 25 




3S6 



Supervised Sttuiy 



Poetry 

Milton : Minor Poems. R. 15 

Milton: Paradise Lost. R. 15 
History 

Macaulay: Warren Hastings. Me. 12 

Macaulay: Chatham. 9.15 
Essay 

Ruskin : Sesame and Lilies. R. 15 

Thoreau: Walden. L. 25 
Fiction 

Hugo : Ninety Three. B. 45 

Dickens : A Tale of Two Cities. L. 25 

2. How to direct the Pupil's Outside Reading. Mr. T. A. 

Wallace, principal of the Crosby High School, Waterbury, 
Conn.,^ reports a successful plan. At the beginning of the 
year a list of fiction (he frankly confesses inability to get 
pupils to read other kinds of literature) is posted at the 
school and at the city library. From this list the pupils are 
required to select one book a month. At the end of the 
month they report on sheets of paper with four columns. 



Nakb ov ihe Aitihok 



Title ov Book 



Datk 



Remarks 



I 



Under Remarks are criticisms, how they liked the book, a 
brief statement of the plot ; but each pupil is allowed to do 
what he pleases about such comments except that if made 
at all they must be the pupil's own opinion. 

* School Review, September, 1913, pp. 478-485. 



Supervising the Study of Literature 357 

3. Another scheme, less detailed, but possessing value is 
illustrated in the following suggestions: 

For action, read Homer and Scott. 

For conciseness, read Bacon and Pope. 

For sublimity of conception, read Milton. 

For vivacity, read Stevenson and Kipling. 

For imagination, read Shakespeare and Job. 

For common sense, read Benjamin Franklin. 

For simplicity, read Bums, Whittier, and Bunyan. 

For smoothness, read Addison and Hawthorne. 

For humor, read Chaucer, Cervantes, Rabelais, and Mark Twain. 

For choice of individual words, read Keats, Tennyson, and 
Emerson. 

For the study of human nature, read Shakespeare and George 
Eliot. 

For loving and patient observation of nature, read Thoreau, 
Burroughs, and Walton. 

The list will have little value if the teacher finds it imperative 
to limit the choice to fiction. There are a few pupils, however, 
who can be tempted into other kinds of reading; and the 
teacher belongs just as much to the minority as to the itiany. 

IV. Methods of Supervising the Study of Literature 

In Chapter VIII several suggestions were given for supple- 
mentary reading. The teacher in directing the study of a 
piece of literature, to repeat, needs to guide the pupil along the 
following lines : 

1. To read with pencil in hand. 

2. To make excerpts or extracts. On the margin of the 
book a paragraph may be condensed into a single state- 
ment ; or the same material can be written on inserted leaves. 



% 



3S8 Supervised Study 

3. To read with a definite object in view. There must be 
a leading point of view: an angle of vision, a problem, a 
goal idea that helps the reader to focus attention on the 
various details. This controlling purpose must be the author's. 

4. To re-read for a better understanding, deeper apprecia- 
tion, and a better retention of the material. 

One teacher finds the following method helpful to her pupils 
in studying American literature : 

"With the books open on our desks we begin an outline as a 
preparation for study. 'American Literature' is taken as the title 
of the entire outline, and the subject of the first chapter as the first 
large topic. Taking the chapter, paragraph by paragraph, we give 
the topics, using them either as topics or subtopics according to 
the importance of the contents. 

"After much discussion, we decided that the idea of the first 
paragraph is 'the origin of literature.' From individual sugges- 
tions we draw the conclusion that 'the meaning of literature' is the 
next point. This brings us to the idea of 'English literature,' dis- 
cussed under the heads : (i) characteristics, (^ growth, (3) divi- 
sions. The final topic of the chapter becomes ' causes for difference 
in British and American Literature.' Under each one of these 
topics are subtopics. The discovery of the important heads is what 
the pupil finds most difficult. If we can show him how to decide 
upon these, and how to attach to them, as minor details, the other 
ideas of the chapter, we have shown him how to study." 

I . Studjring the Novel. The aim of this form of literature 
should be kept clearly in mind. It is 

To entertain by a series of humorous or thrilling incidents. 

To awaken interest in social conditions demanding reform. 

To portray historical characters and scenes more informally 
than is done by the average historian, as in Louisa Muhlbacks' 
novels. 



Supervising the Study of Literature 359 

To depict social and economic conditions of other days 
or of the present. 

When we ask others about a book they have read, we 
desire to know if it merits our devoting time to it. If in- 
teresting, why is it so? If a profoimd study of character, 
what kind of character? These practical everyday ex- 
periences with books are vital in a course on literature. Dur- 
ing an informal period the pupils should be led to speak of 
their impressions gained in reading. The teacher should be 
well read and by enthusiastic conunents, comparisons, and 
criticism should seek to awaken in the pupils a faith in the 
value of knowing something about books. During this in- 
formal period the teacher should give a fair estimate of the 
best of past and modem novels. Although Goethe once said : 
" Do not study contemporaries, but those great men of the 
past whose works have always been valued and esteemed 
through the centuries," there are many books of the present 
worthy of our perusal. Lady Baltimore^ Richard Carvel, The 
Crisis, The Far Country, Queed, V, V.^s Eyes, The Harbor, 
The Harvester — to mention the more recent — should be read 
and commented on in class. 

b, A knowledge of the author's name, title of the book, 
publisher, date (year) of publication, kind of book (problem, 
historical, mystery, adventure, society, etc.), leading char- 
acters, skeleton of plot, general style, and method of develop- 
ing the plot are among the essentials in any luminous discus- 
sion of a novel. 

c. Novels are read mainly for the story. In high school 
courses much valuable time can be saved by omitting the 
long descriptive passages that are doubtless important as 
literature but hardly essential to the imderstanding of the 



360 Supervised Study 

plot or story itself. Unnecessary details can well be omitted 
at this time. What is needed is rather accurate familiar- 
ity with the behavior of the characters and what they 
suggest. 

d. Detective stories and short stories in modem magazines 
are rarely studied in high schools. A distinguished English 
educator, Frank Hayward/ suggests that the detective story 
can be studied as an exercise in thinking. Much of the cheap 
literature of the present deals with trashy mystery and 
detective tales, rightly condemned by thoughtful people. 
Sherlock Holmes, Lupin, Lequoc, and Kennedy, however, de- 
serve a place in the fictive hall of fame and introduction to 
them and others of their stamp would elevate the pupil's 
taste in what is a normal desire of reading matter. 

2. The Essay. Although, as a rule, high school pupils fail 
to find this form of literature appealing, something can be 
done to create a liking for its representatives. As some one 
has said : " If we want the bare fact, we go to history, or, 
with discrimination, to the newspaper ; if we want a logical 
statement of principles, we go to philosophy ; if we want the 
truth below the fact as a man of genius divines it, the truth 
touched with beauty as it lies in the vision of the artist, or 
irradiated with humor and projected against a backgroimd 
of other and diverse truth, as the humorist sees it, we turn to 
literature. In the essay we get a glimpse of character, a 
turn of humor, a significant aspect of affairs, interpenetrated 
by a rich personaUty.'' 

One of the best suggestions for studying the essay has 
been given by Hamilton Wright Mabie in the following 
quotation : 

^ See his The Lessons in Appreciation f 191 5. 



Supervising the Study of Literature 361 

"Three words define the best method of studying the essay: 
appreciation, analysis, comparison. The rule-of-thumb in literary 
study is at present so widespread and so tyrojimcal that it is neces- 
sary to protest against it at every turn. A great many people 
believe that salvation comes, not from a change of heart, but from a 
method of life ; that, if a complex method of study is secured, the 
work is done ; and the result is that there are hosts of people who 
know the definitions, but who do not know the things defined; 
who can repeat all the principal dates in Uterary history, but have 
not touched the heart of literature. It must be said over and over 
again, therefore, that the beginning of all wisdom in dealing with 
the work of art is to let it tell its own story, convey its own impres- 
sion ; in a word, making yourself thoroughly familiar with it, by 
holding a perfectly open mind to it until it possesses the imagina- 
tion. If one wants to understand the *Ode on a Grecian Urn,' for 
instance, let him begin by putting all criticism out of mind and learn 
the poem by heart : this is appreciation. When this stage has been 
reached, one can with safety consider the separate quaUties of an 
essay, the manner of treatment, the arrangement of the topics, 
the special variety — whether of philosophic comment, of vital 
interest, of study of manners, of personal portraiture, or of 
hiunor. This prepares a student to understand the difference 
between an essay from the ' Spectator ' and an essay by Charles 
Lamb. 

"This kind of analysis lays open, but does not disintegrate, a 
piece of literary work. And it is aided and made more illuminating 
by comparison. One may be studying, for instance, the Uterary 
essay as a variety of the general literary form; let him compare 
Macaulay's Essay on Milton, Bagehcrt's Essay on Shakespeare. 
Arnold's Essay on Byron, and Lowell's Essay on Dante. These 
three words — appreciation, analysis, and comparison — suggest 
lines of work which do not run into tyrannical methods, but 
which may make highways into the heart of some of the best 
literature." 



d 



362 Supervised Study 

3. The Drama. Because its action is more rapid, descrip- 
tive matter confined to stage scenery, and the development 
of the plot brief, the study of the drama awakens quick re- 
sponse in most of us. It was written for acting — its appeal 
is the larger audience, whereas the novel addresses the indi- 
vidual reader. The method of study, therefore, will be in 
essential points different from that of the two forms already 
considered. 

a. Over analysis. Much writing, minute scrutiny of pas- 
sages must be avoided. A knowledge of the story is, of course, 
fimdamental. Some acquaintance with the sources of the 
play is equally desirable. Questions like the following : 

Why did the people of Pope's day think little of Shakespeare? 
Why has Shakespeare come into favor again since then? 

State what you know of the sources of any one of Shakespeare's 
plays. 

are suggestive of the better mode of attack.^ 

b. Modern Plays. The high school pupil, however, doubt- 
less has been served too much Shakespeare. Modem drama- 
tists are almost wholly neglected. Surely plays like " The 
Great Divide," " Servant in the House," " The Witching 
Hour," "The Rivals," "Secret Service," MoU^re's "The 
Sick Man," Barrie's " Quality Street," etc., deserve study. 
As it now is the high school pupil may know " Macbeth " 
and " Julius Caesar," and " She Stoops to Conquer " not 
to mention the ever present " Hamlet," but has no knowl- 
edge of modem dramatic tendencies, or any clear conception 
of how to judge a play. The objection that the drama of 
to-day is hardly fit to be studied is made inadvisedly when 
one recalls some of the situations and bon mots of Shakespeare. 

1 James W. Linn, in School Review ^ February, 191 1, p. 96. 



Supervising the Study of Literature 363 

Study of dramatic reviews, synopses in some of the mag- 
azines, would prove a wholesome variation in a course that 
often is little more than literary analysis. 

c. Cooperative Plays and Novels. The occasional appearance 
of a cooperative novel and the not infrequent cooperative 
authorship of plays suggest a method of study that perhaps is 
feasible on a smaller scale in the high school. In these days of 
emphasis on application in education the cooperative author- 
ship of a play by high school pupils for credit is a means of 
vitalizing the course. The usual method of dramatization is 
pleasantly and profitably aided by the pupils writing a play 
built on the principles of modem dramatics. Scenarios or 
synopses are also a helpful exercise. 

4. Poetry. The conmion opinion that reading poetry is 
immanly and impractical is doubtless one of the strongest 
reasons for high school boys disliking English. Anyone can 
hardly blame them in the light of what only too frequently 
takes place in these courses. Poetry is a form of philosophy, 
— it is an interpretation of life as art always is. It may be 
studied for its " prettiness " and thereby remain unintelli- 
gible. Studied as the poet's observation of life's subtler 
meaning or some phase of its many forms, it may become a 
most practical incentive to higher thinking, to more enduring 
effort, to hope, to aboimding struggle toward an ever beckoning 
Best. No one can find value in poetry unless he has been 
trained to appreciate its purpose, its thought, and its form. 
The mere repetition of words, the mere memorizing of its 
lines, the mere analysis of its imagery avail but little. Some- 
thing deeper and lovelier must be discovered and applied. 

a. The problem of appreciation, while less compelling in high 
school than in more advanced courses, nevertheless demands 



364 Supervised Study 

considerable attention. George Edward Woodberry^ writes 
feelingly on this topic : 

" The appreciation of Uterature is thus by no means a simple 
matter ; it is not the ability to read ; nor even a canon of criti- 
cism and rules of admiration and censure that are required ; but a live 
soul, full of curiosity and interest in life, sensitive to impressions, 
acute and subtle in reception, prompt to complete a suggestion, 
and always ready with the Ught of its own life to serve as a lamp 
unto its feet. Appreciation of Uterature, too, is neither rapid nor 
final ; it moves with no swifter step than life itself ; and it opens, 
like Ufe, always on larger horizons and other labors." 

The teacher's objective in supervising the study of poetry 
and all forms of Uterature Ues, then, in creating a real love 
for the ideas and ideals of noble Uving stated in language, 
choice, melodious, and representative, that is, appreciated 
not merely for its music — happy or subUme, as this may be — 
but for its glimpse into the heart of man and into the slowly 
evolving process of man, ever to be the Near-God. " Litera- 
ture is not an object of study but a mode of pleasure ; it is 
not a thing to be known merely Uke science, but to be Uved." 

b. The need of studying poetry as well as any form of Utera- 
ture is, however, quite apparent. Appreciation is rarely if 
ever intuitive. Appreciation depends upon apperception — 
the interpretation of the present in the terms of past experi- 
ence. What we know guides us in imderstanding the strange. 
If a poem is obscure, this is due primarily to two causes: 
we fail to imderstand the language or we fail to imderstand 
the form. We lack experience by which to interpret the 
difficulty. Pupils, therefore, must study language and poetic 

* See his chapter on " First Principles " in The Appreciation of Literature or in 
Essays for College Men, 



^ 



Supervising the Stiddy of Literature 365 

form as a means of appreciating the thought and the ideal 
of the poem. 

c. Method of Studying Poetry. This study should pursue 
the following methods : 

(i) Paragraphing. The pupil must be able to state in his 
own words or the author's in prose form what the poem states. 
All of the finer meanings cannot be discussed in high school 
courses. In fact, poems become richer in meaning only by 
our own maturing experience. But the main currents of 
thought must be studied at first by this prose route. 

(2) Classification of Instincts and Imagery. Literature is 
enriched and adorned by references to instincts and to the 
senses. Appreciation of an author's form of expression be- 
comes more sympathetic when one understands what he is 
appealing to in human nature. Dowden ^ writes : 

"From each work of a great author we advance to his total 
work, and thence to the man himself, — to the heart and brain from 
which all this manifold world of wisdom and wit and passion and 
beauty has proceeded. Here again, before we address ourselves to 
the interpretation of the author's mind, we patiently submit our- 
selves to a vast series of impressions. And in iaccordance with 
Bacon's maxim that a prudent interrogation is the half of knowledge, 
it is right to provide ourselves with a number of well-considered 
questions which we may address to our author. Let us cross- 
examine him as students of mental and moral science, and find 
replies in his written words. Are his senses vigorous and fine? 
Does he see colour as well as form? Does he delight in all that 
appeals to the sense of hearing, — the voice of nature, and the 
melody and harmonies of the art of man? Thus Wordsworth, 

^ Transcripts and Studies ^ London, 1888. Quoted by Carpenter, Baker, and 
Scott in The Teaching of English^ 1913, pp. 255-257. 



s 



366 Supervised Study 

exquisitely organized for enjoying and interpreting all natural, and, 
if we may so say, homeless and primitive sounds, had little feeling 
for the delights of music. Can he enrich his poetry by gifts from 
the sense of smell, as did Keats ; or is his nose, like Wordsworth's, an 
idle promontory projecting into a desert air? Has he, like Brown- 
ing, a vigorous pleasure in all strenuous muscular movements; 
or does he, like Shelley, live rapturously in the finest nervous thrills ? 
How does he experience and interpret the feeling of sex, and in what 
parts of his entire nature does that feeling find its elevating con- 
nections and associations? What are his special intellectual 
powers? Is his intellect combative or contemplative? What are 
the laws which chiefly preside over the associations of his ideas? 
What are the emotions which he feels most strongly, and how do his 
emotions coalesce with one another? Wonder, terror, awe, love, 
grief, hope, despondency, the benevolent affections, admiration, 
and religious sentiment, the moral sentiment, the emotion of power, 
irascible emotion, ideal emotion — how do these make themselves 
felt in and through his writings ? What is his feeling for the beauti- 
ful, the sublime, the ludicrous? Is he framed to beheve or framed 
to doubt? Is he prudent, just, temperate, or the reverse of these? 
These and like questions are not to be crudely and formally pro- 
posed, but are to be used with tact; nor should the critic press 
for hard and definite answers, but know how skilfully to glean its 
meaning from an evasion. He is a dull cross-examiner who will in- 
variably follow the scheme which he has thought out and prepared 
beforehand, and who cannot vary his questions to surprise or beguile 
the truth from an imwilling witness. But the tact which comes 
from natural gift and from experience may be well supported by 
something of method, — method well hidden away from the surface 
and from sight." 

(3) Interpretation of allusions in figures of speech or refer- 
ences. This is aided by information gleaned in practically 
every subject of the program of studies. 



k 



Supervising the Study of Literature 367 

(4) A brief study of the author's life with the occasion of the 
poem, and the author's purpose in writing it. This should 
be aided by Literary Maps. A large map on the black- 
board, containing author's birthplace, home, and where he 
wrote each poem or book, and date may be of great value in 
forming a background of interpretation and appreciation. 

(5) Memorizing. A large part of the time now wasted in 
notebook work could be spent to greater advantage in learn- 
ing poems or quotations. The most economical method of 
memorizing is discussed on page 209. It is important in 
memory work to learn the poems as illustrations of some great 
ideas or facts. If memorized simply as poems, they are easily 
forgotten, but if learned in association with a great thought, 
they are easily retained. For example : 

Poems of Idealism or Inspiration 

TJo the True Romance, Kipling 
Locksley Hall, Tennyson 
Excelsior, Longfellow 
The Chambered Nautilus, Lowell 

Poems of Historical Events 

The Concord Hymn, Emerson 
Paul Revere's Ride, Longfellow 

Poems of Nature and Animals 

The Skylark, Shelley 
To a Mouse, Bums 
Snowbound, Whittier 



This linking of poem and view of life is a cultural process. 
To have a quotation at one's command in life's shifting situa- 



i 



368 Supervised Study 

tions is the mark of a good reader. Nothing is more im- 
portant in the study of literature than this storehouse of 
illustrations. 

d, Merriam's Method of studying " EvangelineJ^ An ex- 
cellent illustration of how pupils may be directed in studying 
" Evangeline " is furnished by Dr. Merriam in the following 
lesson plan. 

Lesson Plan in Evangeline 

Preliminary 

As a part of the previously assigned lesson, the class was directed 
to read sections I and II. The teacher added: "This is largely 
descriptive. Therefore read carefully, endeavoring to get clear 
pictures. At the next meeting of the class, be prepared to describe 
these pictures." 

The Class Hour 

I. Recitation : (A small portion of the period.) 

1. On the study of the previous day. 

2. On the portion of " Evangeline " assigned. 

1. What pictures did you find described? 
Answers would be, for example : 

1. The village of Grand Pre. 

2. The simple life of the Acadian farmers. 

3. Evangeline. 

4. Evangeline's home. 

2. Describe each picture. 

(This portion of the recitation is merely to make sure 
that the class has at hand the data needed for the 
class study.) 
n. Class Study : (A large portion of the period, usually with texts 

open.) 



9} 



Supervising the Study of Literature 369 

Problem : 

1. To observe certain details that contributed to the quiet 

happiness of the Acadian farmers. 

2. To examine some of the means by which the poet presented 

his pictures. 

1. What evidences are given of this quiet happiness? 
Answers would include, for example : 

1. " Softly the Angelus sounded. " 

2. "Homeward serenely she walked. 

3. "Neither locks . . . nor bars. . , 

4. "Free from fear . . . and envy. 

5. "The blacksmith . . . honored of all men. " 
What possible interruptions of this happiness? 
Answers may be such as : 

1. "Dikes . . . shut out the turbulent tides. " 

2. "... foretold a winter long and inclement." 

3. ". . . EngHsh ships . . . with their cannon." 

2. What means has the poet used to present these pictures 

so well ? 
Answer may be : 

1. The inverted and transposed order in sentences, e.g. 

1. "This is the forest primeval." 

2. "Black were her eyes." 

2. A descriptive vocabulary, e.g. turbulent, wreathing, 

murmuring. 

3. Allusions, e.g. 

1. "The penitent Peter." 

2. "Louisburg is not forgotten." 

III. Assignment : (A few minutes at the close of the period.) 
I. On class study. 

1. Prepare in some detail a written outline of the evidences 

of happiness among these Acadian people. 

2. Supplement (orally) the poem by further facts rela- 

tive to 

2 B 




370 Supervised Sttidy 

1. The Angelus. 

2. Fear — tyrants, and envy — republics. 

3. "The ViUage Blacksmith." 

4. The religious life of the Acadians. 

5. The penitent Peter. 

(These would probably be individual assignments.) 
3. Express in prose (written) at least ten of the most poetic 
expressions. 
2. On new material. 

Read III and IV and select the topic. 

e. Reading, What precedes finds its happiest application 
in the artistic reading of poetry with a sense of rhythm, a 
feeling of the poet's emotion, and a technic of vocal expression 
that lends charm and uplift to all who hear the poem read. 
Too little time is devoted to this phase of study. Again, it 
may be suggested that less notebook work and more oral 
interpretation is needed in the study of literature. A large 
part of credit in English should recognize the pupil's knowing 
many poems and his ability to read them with understanding 
and grace. 

General Summary 

Only broad principles of study have been treated in this 
chapter. Details of questions and notes are found in practi- 
cally all editions of literature used in the high school. There 
is need, however, to suggest that much of the copying and 
detailed analysis in literary study is wasteful and boresome. 
It leads to no permanent benefit. It is a mere traditional 
formalism that wide-awake teachers are forsaking to the 
vitalizing of their courses and the increasing of enthusiasm 
for literature. Literature is a form of self-expression and 
requires not a microscope but a rich experience of living. Its 



i 



Supervising the Study of Literature 371 

finest mode of study is sympathy — the power to feel what the 
author feels. Knowledge of poems, references, fictive char- 
acters is practical because enriching one's understanding of 
life. It is here that supervision of study in literature has its 
finest opportunity. 



k 



CHAPTER XVI 

SUPERVISING THE STUDY OF THE FINE AND THE 

PRACTICAL ARTS 

I. The Natural Interest in Art 

One of the most interesting phases of the emotional life of 
adolescents is their growing fondness for art, more particularly 
music, painting, architecture, and drama. One finds here a 
fascinating blend of individual and sex instincts (if the cus- 
tomary classification may be used). On the one hand, art is 
a means of self-expression, a form of expression that requires 
freedom and abandon. The developing individuality must 
have a wide outlet or means of exercise. The creative instinct 
asserts the power of the individual to advance beyond his 
group and higher than the past. It seems that this biological 
need of self-expression is, moreover, surroimded with pleasur- 
able feelings and results, which stimulate a repetition of en- 
deavor imtil habits of refined expression have become more 
permanently fixed. But, on the other hand, this very art- 
form of the emotional life, at the same time that it serves the 
individual for himself, tends to make one individual so attrac- 
tive in skill, appearance, character, or personality that some 
other individual will desire to possess this superior person. 
Again, the biological law of repetition appears, but now in the 
specific, albeit at first vague, tendency to multiply the attrac- 

372 



Supervising the Sttidy of Fine and Practical Arts 373 

tive individual. And so the sex instinct is affected by the 
charm of each individual, and in turn reacts on the further 
refinement of the one who loves or is loved. 

The high school, then, faces a double problem at this point. 
The tendency in some directions is toward repression. Sex, 
art, fine dress, and amusements are frowned upon as grievous 
temptations to evil. In other quarters full and free expression 
under reasonable control (freedom always involves control) is 
advocated. This policy results in courses on sex hygiene, 
physical culture, with considerable emphasis on dancing and 
art in its usual forms of music, painting, and clay or plaster 
modeling. There can be no question about the high school 
pupil's preferences in the matter. Lancaster ^ foimd that of 
556 adolescents 464 testified to the " love of music." The 
author in his investigation of various phases of study in seven 
high schools of Illinois foimd that nearly 30 per cent wanted 
more art and nearly 34 per cent wanted more music in the high 
school. 

II. The Aim in studying Art 

Artists in various fields have stated extravagantly their 
conceptions of the value and aim of art. In his delightful series 
of essays entitled The Ministry of Art Dr. Ralph Adams Cram 
writes: 

" If education is the education of all that is best in man, the mak- 
ing possible the realization of all his potentialities, the building 
up of personality through the d5aiamic force of the assembled 
achievements of the human race throughout history, and all toward 
the end of perfecting sane and righteous and honorable character, 
then you must make art, so understood and so taught as integral 
a part of your curriculum as natural science, or mathematics, or 

1 Op. cit 




I 



374 Supervised Study 

biology. Not in djoiastic mutations, not in the red records of 
war, not in economic vacillations, or in mechanical achievements, 
lies the revelation of man in his highest and noblest estate, but 
in those spiritual adventures, those strivings after the imattainable, 
those emancipations of the human soul from the hindrance of the 
material form, which mark the highest points of his rise, presage 
his final victory, and are recorded and revealed in the art which is 
their voicing ... art ... is neither a commodity nor a wonder- 
ful attribute of man who is made in God's image, a subtle language, 
and a mystery that, in its nature, we may with reverence call 
sacramental." 

This is noble writing and finds reverential amens in the 
bosom of every artistic nature. It reminds one of the stirring 
lines of Victor Hugo : 

The initiate and the strong alone know the algebra that lurks 
in music ; genius knows all, and what it does not know it divines, 
and what it does not divine it invents, and what it does not in- 
vent it creates ; and it invents the true and creates the life-like. 

When one enters by railroad or boat a community, large or 
small, the ugly d6bris, foul odors, blatant misery and corrup- 
tion everywhere evident or suggested, give birth to the surprise 
that man's fabulous priced canvasses and marbles in the 
stately galleries and museums have failed to affect the out- 
skirts, the harbors, the poorer sections of our communities. 
One finds it very difficult indeed to keep back the judgment 
that museums of art are the world's crystallized vanity if they 
serve only for gushing " Ah, how exquisite, how superb," or 
for more restrained but inactive admiration. This is not the 
aim of art. Self-expression may lead to a refined individual- 
ism, but confined to this narrow circumference art fails to 
serve society unless its laws and ideals of the harmonious and 



Supervising the Study of Fine and Practical Arts 375 

the beautiful are made operative in every avenue of social life. 
In the high school art in all of its branches must function 
toward the following ends : 

1. Appreciation of the fundamental differences between the ugly 
and the beautiful. 

2. The designmg of dress, tools, furniture, table service, homes, 
cities from the standpoint of the simple and the harmonious. This, 
of course, does not mean an elaborate study of any of these ; but 
courses in domestic science and civics might well consider in some 
detail how homes should be organized on the principles of art and 
how cities or towns might be improved in appearance. 

3. How to judge a picture, statue, or any work of art. 

4. Artistic workmanship in manual training, domestic science, 
drawing, and painting as well as in music. 

5. Pupil cooperation by competition or organization in decorat- 
ing the school building in and out doors, and as much as feasible 
the home, church, and community. In some towns cleaning day 
is supervised by the seniors in the high school. 

III. Methods of Supervising the Study of These 

Courses 

The nature of the work in courses deaUng with fine arts and 
the practical arts is fimdamentally individual. The laboratory 
method prevails. Pupils learn by doing and by applying. 
This fact makes it unnecessary to consider in detail the super- 
vision of study in these subjects. A few suggestions will 
suflBice. 

I. The Method of Application or the synthetic method is 
preferable to the more formal or analytic method. The pupil 
should begin at once to create or to deal with finished products. 
The learning to play simple selections has displaced the old 
method of beginning with scales. 




I 



376 Supervised Study 

2. Skill through Contact with Life Problems. If the pupil 
is working on something that eventually will be his, he will 
take peculiar pride in producing a creditable performance. 
His natural instinct of self-expression and ambition will impel 
him to do his best. For this reason pupils in manual training 
and domestic science work on things they can use. 

Similar motivation is possible in painting, clay modeling, 
decorations, and music. 

3. School Credit for Private Work. The movement to 
recognize the pupil's private lessons in music, painting, elocu- 
tion, and aesthetic dancing or eurythmics is now well estab- 
lished. The following blanks and directions used by Superin- 
tendent Wilson Tout of North Platte, Neb., indicate what can 
be done in other fields as well.^ 

Form for Enrollment 

To Any Accredited Teacher of Music : 

a student in North Platte 

High School, wishes to take private music lessons on the 

This student will be given high school credit for this work after 
proper reports have been received from you. It is understood that 
this permit covers this semester only and is void after one high 
school credit has been received. Please fill out at once and send 
by the student, a copy of the Enrollment Blank, and when the 32 
lessons have been completed in a satisfactory manner, send a copy 
of the Credit Blank by mail or deliver in person. (Never send 
the credit blank by the student.) 

This form is made out by the superintendent or high school 
principal, after satisfying himself that the student in question has 
not enrolled for too many other subjects. It is handed to the 
student who carries it to the teacher who is selected by the student. 

^ Journal of EduccUiotif October 29, 1914. 



Supervising the Study of Fine and Practical Arts 377 

Form of Return Sheet by the Music Teacher 

I have enrolled a student in North 

Platte High School for private music lessons on the 

This student will take lessons a week, tl[ie lessons to 

be given at (hour) on (days of week) 

and Not more than two lessons a 

week will be given, each to be of thirty minutes. I am to assume 
all responsibility for collection of all charges, and in no case will I 
hold the North Platte City Schools responsible for any amount. 

A number of these blanks are furnished to each approved teacher 

of music. Upon receiving a permit from the school authorities 

the teacher Ms out this blank and sends it to the person who signed 

the permit. 

Form of Credit Sup 

(Student's Name) 

a student in North Platte High 

School has taken 32 music lessons on the piano on 

the dates given below and they have been satisfactory. A grade 
of has been earned. 

1 17 

2 18 

3 19 

4 20 

S 21 

6 22 

7 23 

8 24 

9 25 

10 26 

II 27 

12 28 

13 29 

14 30 

IS 31 

16 32 



I 



378 Supervised Sttidy 

(This Credit Slip must not be sent by the students, but should be 
mailed or delivered in person by the teacher.) 

These blanks are furnished to the approved teacher of music and 
upon them the record of the student is kept. After the grade has 
been earned, this blank properly filled out and signed is sent to the 
person who signed the permit. This blank is always sent by mail 
or delivered in person. 

Students enrolled in the North Platte High School may receive a 
maximum of six points credit toward graduation by complying 
with the following regulations governing credit for vocal or instru- 
mental music. 

Rule I. The Board of Education may accredit teachers of vocal 
or instrumental music who have shown marked abiUty as teachers 
in these special hnes. Institutions and schools will not be accred- 
ited but only individual teachers of such schools or institutions or 
individual teachers not connected with such schools or institutions. 

Rule 2. Accredited teachers will give standard courses and 
standard selections for study. The exact course and method of 
study is left to the individual teacher's judgment, but the Board of 
Education maintains its right to give examinations to the pupils of 
teachers suspected of not having a high standard, before giving 
them credit. Also its certificate of accreditment may be with- 
drawn from teachers violating any of the regulations herein given 
covering their work. 

Rule 3. Pupils wishing credit in music must select their own 
teachers from among those approved by the Board of Education 
and must make all arrangements with them as individuals. Neither 
the school nor its authorities will make such arrangements nor 
assume any liability or responsibility whatever. Pupils must 
pay the teacher directly and not through the school or its authorities. 

Rule 4. Not more than two half-hour lessons a week may be 
given for credit. The lessons may be more than half an hour in 
length, but not less. When a lesson is missed for any reason, three 
lessons must not be given during any other week. 



Supervising the Study of Fine and Practical Arts 379 

Rule 5. Two hours' practice each week day or six hours prep- 
aration is required for each lesson. No lesson may be given on 
the Sabbath. 

Rule 6. When a lesson is given it should be marked satisfactory 
or unsatisfactory by the teacher. Full payment should be de- 
manded in either case. When thirty-two satisfactory lessons have 
been given, the credit blank (Form 3) should be mailed to the 
superintendent. This blank should not be given to the pupil to 
hand to the superintendent. Grades should be marked as follows : 
A, 95 to 100 ; B, 90 to 95 ; C, 85 to 90 ; D, 80 to 85 ; E, 75 to 80 ; 
F, below 75. 

Rule 7. Pupils taking music for credit may be excused from 
school for two periods required each week, if such periods do not 
conflict with the regular work of the pupil and if they are approved 
by the principal of the high school. It is not necessary that school 
time be used in order to receive credit. Pupils may take music 
during vacations, but not more than two points credit for music 
can be entered on the records for any one year. 

Rule 8. In order to get one point of high school credit the thirty- 
two lessons must be taken from the same teacher. Under no condi- 
tions will credit be given where a change of teachers is made during 
the taking of the thirty-two lessons. Teachers must not use sub- 
stitute when out of the city or when sick or for any other reason. 

Rule 9. No credit will be entered for pupils during the year in 
which they graduate. 

4. Scheme in Junction City, Kan. A somewhat similar 
scheme is employed by Superintendent J. W. Shideler of 
Junction City, Kan.^ 

High School Credit for Music Study 

A bulletin issued by J. W. Shideler, superintendent of the Junc- 
tion City, Kan., public schools, announces that high school pupils 

* School Review, November, 1913. 



/ 



I 



380 Supervised Study 

taking music outside of school are given credit. One unit a year is 
granted on the basis of thirty-two credits for graduation. The 
requirements are as follows : 

1. For instrumental music (piano), the following points will be 
emphasized: (a) bodily poise — position of hands, (b) correct 
rhythm, (c) tone coloring, (d) correct pedaling, (e) phrasing, (/) 
expression. (Violin) omit latter part of (a) and (d) and substitute 
correct handUng of bow. 

2. For voice culture: (a) vocal poise, {b) tone quality, (c) tone 
placement, (d) articulation, (e) pronunciation, (/) smoothness of 
vocalization, (g) phrasing, {h) expression, {i) interpretation. 

3. Application for such credit must be made by parent and must 
be accompanied by written recommendation of private teacher. 

4. No pupil will be accepted who takes fewer than one lesson a 
week and practices fewer than six hovirs a week. 

5. The teacher must report to the superintendent the first of the 
following months : October, December, February, April, and May 
15, the character and grade of the work, the progress made by the 
pupil since the preceding report, and the compositions studied 
with remarks concerning the scope and quaUty of the work done on 
each composition. The teacher will report a grade in per cent on 
the basis of 75 per cent for passing work. These reports are to be 
made in dupUcate, one signed and one unsigned. 

6. The parent will report to the superintendent the first of every 
month the number of hours of practice of the pupil. 

7. The pupil will be required to pass an examination at the close 
of the year, imder a board of examiners appointed by the super- 
intendent. The examination will be planned on the basis of the 
unsigned reports of the teacher. 

5. Plan in Bristol, Conn. In Bristol, Conn., pupils are per- 
mitted to substitute music, either instrumental, vocal, or 
theoretical, for a high school study. Plans of administration 
like the foregoing are employed. 



Supervising the Study of Fine and Practical Arts 381 

6. Suggestions for organizing Courses in Art. a, A 

sttidy of the structure of instruments like violin, piano, organ, 
and comet would add to the attractiveness of courses in physics 
or general science. 

b. The principles of organizing glee clubs, mixed choirs, 
quartets, orchestras, and bands would be valuable units in 
music courses. 

c. The meaning of good music {illustrated) and poor music. 
It should be noted in this connection that all ragtime is not 
trashy and all so-called classical music is not superior to modem 
Kght operas. 

d. Accuracy, neatness, speed, originality, judgment, and 
perseverance should be noted in all courses. 

e. Note individual peculiarities in the matter of vision, hear- 
ing, dexterity, organization. 

/. Give assignments in program making, hanging of pictures 
(the small reprints will do just as well), arrangement of furni- 
ture and bric-a-brac at home and in offices so that art may 
serve efficiency, 

g. Explain the psychology of dress in its relation to physique, 
complexion, color scheme of drawing-room. (For example, a 
pink dress against a dark red background is displeasing. 
Blondes should not dress in brown. Brunettes should not wear 
cerise.) 

h. Cultivate in the pupils respect for art as practical knowl- 
edge. Avoid, therefore, extravagant praise of objects studied ; 
shun the popular conception of the artist in mannerism and 
extreme novelty of dress. 

i. Art should be treated as seriously as any other subject. 
Its teachers should be selected for their training and controlled 
enthusiasm. Avoid the excessively emotional type. 



382 Supervised Sitidy 

General Summary 

The artistic attitude may be unaccompanied by any specific 
talent for definite artistic performance ; but it is fair to the 
pupils to give every one an opportunity to ascertain his fitness 
for artistic achievement. The pupil's social life is greatly im- 
proved by his ability in artistic performance of some kind. 
Vocational success may result from the arousal of interest in 
aCrt during high school years. Supervision should aim at 
large views of art and a practical application of it from week 
to week. Mere formal exercises in drawing, carpentering, 
sewing, or even playing will fail to supply motivation. L. R. 
Alderman's scheme of school credit for home work will prove 
helpful m enlarging tiie field of application. Art should be 
treated as a serious form of living and not as a hyper-senti- 
mental gush of ecstasy. A study of the Roycroft movement 
at East Aurora, N.Y., would be invaluable as a financially 
successful attempt to make art vital and life artistic. 



\ 



PART III 

CHAPTER XVII 
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SUPERVISED STUDY 

I. Measured Results of Supervised Study 

I. Symposium at Columbia University. Unfortunately it 
is difficult to find teachers and principals who have kept ade- 
quate records of the results of this new type of class manage- 
ment. There are a few, however, who in various ways have 
indicated what they regard as worthwhile results. Some of 
these will now be referred to. In the summer of 191 2 while 
teaching at the Summer School of Columbia University, Dr. 
Charles Hughes Johnston found opportunity to get from 
several high school principals reactions on this method of 
teaching. A composite list of these reactions from principals 
who had had some experiences with the method is as follows : 
(i) it saves time; (2) prevents waste of energy; (3) makes 
for definiteness; (4) allows leisure for extra school work, 
family life, athletics, music, art, reading, social and religious 
activities without neglecting school work ; (5) teaches children 
how to use their minds; (6) gives pupils a working day the 
same as people generally have ; (7) aids discipline by keeping 
the child active all the time ; (8) reduces the reiteration plan 
of recitation to a minimum ; (9) makes the classroom a live 
workshop; (10) inspires pupils to study because they know 
how; (11) provides an atmosphere of study — everybody's 

383 



384 Supervised Stvdy 

doing it; (12) brings about a better mutual understanding 
between teacher and individual pupil; (13) because of better 
prepared lessons it relieves the teacher of the sense of failure in 
her teaching ; (14) reduces the amount of home study in the 
grades and the first two years of high school. 

2. Results obtained at Trenton, N.J. H. E. Webb in The 
Pivot, published by the Central High School of Trenton, 
N.J., writes of the general results of the directed study 
period in that school. Briefly summarized his comments are 
as follows : (a) Earnest, sincere students now had the chance 
they had long deserved and were given the first place in the 
teacher's attention regardless of their innate abilities. (J) Idlers 
showed their character very quickly and no amount of smart- 
ness could conceal it. The great majority of them, therefore, 
set about to change it by the simple expedient of going to work, 
(c) A large number of idlers went to work during the study con- 
ference because there was nothing else to do and supervised 
themselves by finding that they enjoyed it. {d) Teachers 
found the character of the other part of the period (the method 
in this school is the divided recitation period already referred 
to) changing, owing to their better acquaintance with their 
pupils and the fact that the general policy of the school is one 
of helpfulness rather than of repression, (e) Students were not 
slow to appreciate that with the teacher at hand to help over 
the hard places it was well worth while to concentrate on one 
study at a time and to economize the classroom hour to the 
utmost. 

3. The Newark Results. Mr. Wiener, in his chapter in 
The Modern High School, by Johnston and others, cites 
several tables indicating the benefits of the divided period. 
The teacher who promoted the fewest pupils did not use super- 



The Effectiveness of Supervised Study 385 

vised study at all. Those who used it only indifferently had 
average results, whereas the teachers who emphasized super- 
vised study had the best promotion records. 

Table XXI. — Tables of Totals for English 



Nahe of Teachers 


No. ON Roll 


No. Prouotei) 


Per Cent 


Alden 

Goldstein 

Snodgrass 

Holt 

Denton 

Rich 

Mnhlman 

Herzberg 


174 

185 
199 

24 

24 

199 

189 

168 


154 

157 
182 

24 

17 
125 

147 
155 


88.5 
84.8 
91.4 
100.0 
70.8 
62.8 

74.4 
92.2 



The general tendency of tables indicating results in other 
subjects is the same. It will be noted that classes not having 
supervised study achieved 62.8 and 74.4 per cent of promo- 
tions. The enrollments here given are totals of all the classes 
taught by each teacher named. 

4. Results in Joliet, 111. So far as the writer knows, the 
most elaborate employment of supervised study is found in 
the high school of Joliet, 111., where the double period is 
in vogue for the first two years in the high school. In the 
recent article in School and Home Education for February, 
Dr. J. Stanley Brown, the principal of this school, writes : 

"I have kept for the past ten semesters the percentage of 
failure in the various subjects taught by the various teachers. 
Every teacher is required to make a report at the close of the 
semester showing these things in every class, viz. : the number 
originally enrolled in the class ; the number in the class at the 
dose of the semester; the number passed at the close of the 
semester ; the number failed with the names of each and the cause 
of the failure ; the number dropped with cause stated for dropping. 



2 c 




386 



Supervised Study 



A tabulation is made of all these teachers' reports at the dose of 
the semester and opportunity is given for comparing one semester's 
work with another for the past four or five years. The past 
semester which ended in Jime, 1914, showed thirty-eight different 
classes in which there were no failures. It showed further that 
the percentage of failures is gradually being reduced to a minimum. 
For us an average minimum will be from ten to thirteen per cent. 
There will be an occasional class that will nm very much higher, 
but a very much larger number that will run very much lower." 

Last spring Dr. Brown gave the writer the following table 
which illustrates the reference made in the foregoing quotation. 

Table XXII. — Table op Percentage of Failures 



Subject 



Algebra . . 

Arithmetic . 
Geometry 

German . . 

Latin . . . 

French . . 
Phjrsiography 



1911 


1912 


1918 


24 


22 


15 


26 


20 


12 


29 


19 


17 


21 


20 


13 


22 


19 


16 


10 


9 


8 


12 


10 


8 



1914 



12 

13 
16 

14 
13 

9 
9 



V 



It will be noted from this table that there is a consistent 
decrease of failures from 1911 to 1914. The few exceptions are 
due to conditions that must be contended with in connection 
with every method ; for example, the general ability of the en- 
tire class, some classes having a higher general efficiency than 
others. From his own observations of the method at work 
in the Joliet High School, the writer can bear witness to the 
general workableness of the scheme. All the teachers with 
whom the writer spoke were in hearty accord with the method. 

5. Results by Mr. J. H. Minnick of Bloomington, Ind. 
Mr. Minnick performed an interesting experiment in super- 



The Effectiveness of Supervised Study 387 

vised study with results confirming in substance those abeady 
cited.^ Selecting 60 pupils from classes beginning plane 
geometry, Mr. Minnick drew at random thirty-six names and 
divided these thirty-six pupils, giving one division supervised 
study and the other remaining unsupervised. The following 
curves show the results as explained. 




2 3 4 6 
OUBYB SHjOWINO 



7 8 9 10 11 12 13 H 15 
AVSEAGBS OV RBGUATION GltADBS 




10 U 12 13 14 
CURVE SHOWING TOTAL J^UMBER OP BBGITATIONS PER WBBR 

e»^».» SUBERVISBD CLASS 

-UNSUPERVISED CLASS 

See School RevieWf December, 1913. 



388 



Supervised Study 



s 



In addition to the foregoing curves the following table of 
results in examinations is suggestive. 

Table XXin. — Results in Examinations 



Kind of Examination 


No. OF 

Examina- 


AvRSAGE OF Class 


Avebage Number 
Solved 




tions 


Supervised 


Unsupervised 


Supervised 


Unsupervised 


Six-weeks examinations . 

Final examination . . 

Tests consisting of new 
materials .... 


' 

i 


I 

2 

I 

I 
2 

3 

. 4 


77-3 

8l.2 

92.4 
82.4 

87.3 
77.6 

82.8 


68.7 
80.4 

80.1 

73-9 
70.2 

56.2 
77-3 


4.2 
4.3 

12.7 
4.8 
4.8 
2.1 
4.2 


3.55 
3-9 

12.2 

4-4 

3.7 
2.1 

3-8 



6. Results by Breslich in Chicago. Clearly supervised 
study works in the cases cited. Additional evidence is fur- 
nished by Mr. Breslich of the Department of Mathematics 
in the University High School, University of Chicago.^ Two 
classes in algebra were tested. Section A was assigned the 
usual home work and no supervised study was given ; Section 
B was taught how to study and was not given any home work. 
Both sections were given the same lessons. The result of the 
same test given to both sections at the close of the experiment 
is as follows : Section A, 62.8 ; Section B, 65.5. The preceding 
semester when no supervised study was oiffered to any classes. 
Section B had an average of 79.4 and Section A 81.4. By 
supervised study Section B gained over Section A. The 
lower averages were due to the greater difficulty of the subject 
matter. In the next chapter studied the order was again re- 
versed. Section A was given supervised study and Section B 
the usual home work. In the test given both sections A aver- 

* See School Review ^ Vol. XX, pp. 505-515. 



The Effectiveness oj Supervised Study 



389 



aged 77.5, a considerable gain over 62.8, and B averaged 86.4, 
breaking its own record and gaining over A. The supervised 
study work given B before still persisted from the preceding 
chapter's work. 

7. The Pottstown, Pa., Results. Mr. L. Loveland submits 
the following table which clearly shows that supervised study 
has benefited the pupils in this high school. There is a normal 
decrease of failures. One must, of course, make due allowance 
for change of teachers and the difficulty of the subject. 



Table XXIV. 


— Progress of 


Pxipn.s BY Atd of Supervised Study 


Year 


No. Passed 


No. Non-Promotions 


No. Eliminated 


1909—10 


303 


26 T^ % 


74 18% 


1910-11 


292 


17 6-% 


68 17% 


1911-12 


277 


19 6+% 


54 15% 


1912 13 


219 


27 8-% 


54 13% 


1913-14 


288 


26 8+ % 


60 16% 


1914-15 


324 


19 6-% 


43 12% 



8. Pueblo, Col. In the high school (district No. 20) 
of this city conditions in junior algebra were far from ideal 
according to statements by the principal in 1913. Supervised 
study was introduced as an experiment. The results proved 
very gratifying. " How those classes have ' dug ' during the 
forty-five minute period. The tests have been passed by a 
considerably higher percentage of the classes than ever before, 
and, in addition to the getting of the work in algebra, they 
have been acquiring the habit of concentrated study." 

9. Cairo, 111. In the high school of this city supervised study 
occupies a prominent place in every subject. The eclectic 
plan is followed. The following table shows results that 
justify the amount of time devoted to this type of supervision. 



390 



Supervised Study 



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The Effectiveness of Supervised Study 391 

10. Results .by Rickard in Oakland City, Ind. ^' The 
pupils' methods of study were ranked into three groups on the 
basis of efficient methods of procedure, the third of the pupils 
having the best methods were put into group one, those hav- 
ing the poorest methods into group three. I then asked the 
classroom teachers to group the pupils similar on the basis of 
their class standing, I was not to see this latter grouping until 
I had completed my grouping. I then compared the groups 
to find the extent of which the pupils grouped in the first 
third on the basis of class standing were retained in the 
same third on the basis of methods of study." A smnmary of 
results is as follows : 

Table XXVI. — Progress of Pupils in History 



Remaining in same textile . . 
Deviating one textile . . . 
Deviating more than one textile 



48.9 
28. s 

19-5 



56 
25 
15 



37.2 

30.05 

27.6 



35 
40 

20 



Rickard says : " The practical implication of these data is 
that pupils stand well in a subject in proportion to the ex- 
tent to which they are explicitly conscious of methods of study 
for that subject. This fact was still further demonstrated 
by an experiment conducted in this school in 191 3 by which 
the half of the class having the lowest standing when subjected 
to supervised study, and made explicitly conscious of methods 
of study in history, improved rapidly in ranking and grades ; 
while a group of equal ranking and grades was allowed to 
proceed in the usual manner gained nothing in ranking. We 
can afford to take time to make our pupils explicitly con- 
scious of the methods of study. We can't do this sort of teach- 
ing to large groups, I have tried and failed. The pupil must 
have a chance to react immediately to your suggestions." 



392 Supervised Study 

II. The Teacher's Preparation 

In concluding this detailed discussion of supervised study, 
the final word must be devoted to the teacher. The best of 
plans must fail unless they are directed by persons who have 
enthusiastic faith in their ultimate success. If teachers are 
unwilling to change their attitude and their methods, tons of 
books and years of discussion avail nothing. The efficiency of 
our public school system rests chiefly on the teachers who have 
caught the vision of their work as the noblest and most 
dignified of professions. The slurs of " school marm " or 
" pedagogue '' will disappear only when the unfortunate reality 
responsible for them has been transformed into the pride of 
American democracy by each teacher adding his or her con- 
tribution of genuine professional service. There are thousands 
of teachers to-day who are doing valiant work ; teachers whose 
classrooms are charged with the glorious excitement of devel- 
oping individuals. We gladly salute in highest esteem these 
ladies and gentlemen for whom scholarship is the hope of 
a finer civilization, and in whom glows the friendship of 
youth. 

One may deplore the shifting habitats of teachers, and 
attempt to block Cupid's enterprising inroads, but these are not 
fundamental problems. A well-trained, ingenious teacher can 
stay one or two years in a school and work so systematically 
and efficiently that succeeding teachers need find no difficulty 
in continuing the work along similar lines if they are equally 
well trained. The training provided by Schools of Education 
is becoming yearly more comprehensive ; but superintendents 
and principals face the practical, local problem of adjusting 
new teachers to old conditions and experienced teachers to 



\ 



The Effectiveness of Supervised Study 393 

new points of view. It is a problem of continuous training — 
a training in service that confronts the school administrator. 
Reading circles, summer schools, travel, etc., are common 
means in solving this problem. But beyond all this we must 
reach the professional conscience and tap the well of intelligent 
enthusiasm in each teacher. Until this is eiffected, training 
agencies are mere formalism. 

Perhaps the solution is one of individual treatment of teach- 
ers themselves. The teacher can be encouraged, developed, 
and trained by friendly supervision and tactful criticism. 
More publicity should be given to their successful eifforts. 
Greater recognition should be given them by name in local 
papers and school reports. The personality of the teacher 
should not be submerged beneath the impersonal designation 
" work in our history courses is very successful " ; " progress 
in mathematics is hopeful " ; " there is marked improvement 
in Latin." That finer compliment of mentioning the name 
of the teacher together with her place in the school system is 
not only fair ; it has a practical result in constraining the 
teacher to make her name even more representative of success. 
What is needed all along the line in American education is 
respect of persons — both teachers and pupils. The deaden- 
ing routine of system must be revived by recognizing individ- 
uals in the system. Education, let us hope, is not a soulless 
corporation but a spiritual cooperation in whic^h the enthusiasm, 
individuality, and ambition of each member of the school 
organization becomes a vital part of the whole. 

Rickard^s Directions to Teachers. Mr. Rickard appreciated 
this need in dealing with his teachers as study supervisors. 
Extracts from his Directions to Teachers should be emulated 
by other principals : 



/ 



394 Supervised Study 

It is frequentiy and fairly urged that high school teachers do 
not know how to teach methods of study, that they are so engrossed 
in subject matter that they are not concerned with how it is gotten. 
It is my observation that high school teachers do not know how to 
teach studying, because they have never been made explicitly 
conscious of the problem, nor have they received any training in 
that method of approach. Their teachers did not approach methods 
of study as a problem. We need a practicimi of study supervision. 
In the hopes of giving you some actual practice in the supervision of 
study this synopsis of study supervision is offered. These sugges- 
tions are not to be regarded as final and authoritative. They may 
be modified as we gain greater insight into our problems: but 
they give us a chance to do something. 

To my mind the high school teacher should see this problem 
from three angles, as a classroom teacher of a subject, as an as- 
sembly, or study hall supervisor, and as a member of a faculty 
interested in our pupils' welfare in a general administrative way. 
What shall we do by way of supervising study from each of these 
three angles? 

As A Classroom Teacher op a Subject 

1. Make definite assignments — the sort which looks consciously 
backward toward the larger unity in which it is held, and forward 
toward new points of application. The pupil should know definitely 
what is expected of him, and should be held closely for such 
preparation. Assignments may well take the form of suggestive 
questions. They should be in terms of methods of procedure, that 
is, the pupils should bring to class some tangible evidence of reac- 
tion to the assignment, even though it be merely a tabulator state- 
ment of the dates, kings, and chief events for a chapter of English 
History. 

2. Reward good study habits by some sort of recognition — 
allowing a pupil the chance to give the class the results of his prep- 



\ 



The Effectiveness of Supervised Study 395 

aration may be a suflBicient reward. Allowing a pupil the chance 
to elaborate his prepared material in considerable detail may for 
him be pleasurable enough to induce future reactions of the same 
sort. 

3. Realize that pupils must have the will to leam. We can 
induce this attitude only by the skillful use of incentives. What 
has been said inmiediately above is applicable here. Remember 
that all organisms reach out after more of pleasurable types of 
experience. The organisms before us are not exceptions. Can you 
cause a boy to "feel good" because he has prepared a lesson well? 

4. Talk with pupils of the difficulties of their assignments, of 
their methods of study. Coimt that day lost on which you do not 
gain some insight into your pupils' mental processes. The lawyers 
say that a "meeting of minds" is necessary to a contract; both 
parties must understand each other. Many a high school pupil 
gets a good many things he doesn't contract for, and many a high 
school teacher thinks he has contracted for a good many things he 
never gets, because there is no "meeting of minds." 

5. Think through difficult subject matter with your pupils. 
Let them see your mental processes in action. Don't be afraid to 
think out loud. Try to recall the mental steps by which you reach 
conclusions. In former days apprentices learned their crafts by 
watching master craftsmen at work. Let your pupils get intimate 
insights into the mental steps by which you proceed to write a 
composition, or set up an experiment, or journalize a bookkeeping 
entry. The pupil will imitate your thinking, even imconsciously, 
far more than you think. 

6. Try to find the methods of study pecuUar to your particular 
subject. There are certain general methods fundamental to many 
subjects, but these are modified in a specialized adaption to a 
specific content. 



d 



i 



396 Supervised Study 

As Assembly Room Teachers 

1. See that pupils assume the physical attitude of study. This 
means quite independent work, absence of distracting influences ; 
the presence of the necessary equipment, pens, rulers, compasses, 
etc. If a pupil refuses persistently to assume such an attitude, he 
should be remanded to the office for special treatment. 

2. Recognize the efficient student. One very obvious fact is 
that a pupil may assume the physical attitude of study and lack 
the proper mental attitude. Here is where our incentives should 
function. If they do not, our skill has failed. Having the assembly 
supervisor recognize him as an efficient student is powerful 
incentive. 

3. Pupils should not be allowed to diffuse their energy over 
several subjects in one period, but attention should be focused on 
one. The tendency of children is to be intermittent in their behavior. 
This means that we must enforce, from day to day, attention to a 
particular subject at a particular time, if we mean for such atten- 
tion to come to function as a habit. Have an assembly roll with 
the subject the pupil is to study set opposite his name. This roll 
can be drawn up to correspond to the rows in which the pupils are 
seated. Then the teacher can, by passing down the aisles quickly, 
see that a pupil is studying the subject called for on his program. 
Soon the habit becomes fixed for the pupil of attending to a partic- 
ular subject at that time, or at least allowing it the right of way. 
Moreover, an assembly tends to fall into planes of uniformity ; for 
example, the ninety-three people will be studying Latin during your 
assembly charge. This simplifies the supervision, and makes for 
efficiency of procedure from the standpoint of both the student 
and teacher. But it will not take care of itself. The supervisor 
must take pains to see that he gets the desired reactions. No plan 
will work itself, but is merely a mode of procedure by which the 
personality and skill of the teacher may work effectively. 

4. If there is considerable disturbance in the preparation of an 



The Effectiveness of Supervised Study 397 

assignment, report the same to the classroom teacher. There is 
probably a reason which he should know of. 

5. Realize that time spent in the supervision of study is capital 
productively invested. It is not an added burden ; it is an invest- 
ment for the future. The rate of interest is high: more rapid 
advance through subject matter, few failures, Uvelier interest, 
freedom from the annoying disturbance of those who don't know 
what to do, consequently better discipUne. 

As A Member of the Faculty 

As a member of the faculty you should know the following facts 
which effect the general administrative situation. These facts 
emerge from the analysis of a considerable body of data. 

1. Girls have a wider range of well-established study than boys. 
In this system the average girl studies twenty-seven minutes more 
each day than the average boy. Failures are only about one third 
as frequent among the girls as among the boys. There is practically 
no difference between the sexes with regard to certain social condi- 
tions which might affect study. No one method of study is popu- 
lar with one sex to the exclusion of the other. 

2. Where teachers insist on a particular method of study, that 
fact tends to appear in any statistical inquiry and analysis. 

3. Time spent in study does not increase in regular proportion 
from year to year, but is dependent upon the pecuUarities of the 
specific subject matter. 

4. There is an excessive number of failures in mathematics for 
both sexes. In general that subject requires an excessive amoimt 
of time and preparation, while Enghsh occupies the least. 

5. A forty-minute period is not sufficient for the preparation of 
a lesson except in a few cases under our present regime. Ultimately 
this will mean a lengthening of the school day, shortening of assign- 
ments and ground covered, or the devising of more efficient methods 
of study. 

i 



398 Supervised Study 

General Conclusion 

The various departments of supervised study in this discus- 
sion have aimed to illustrate the conception stated in the open- 
ing chapter that supervised study is that plan of school pro- 
cedure whereby each pupil is so adequately instructed and 
directed in the methods of studjdng and thinking that his 
daily preparation will progress imder conditions most favor- 
able to a hygienic, economical, and self-reliant career of in- 
tellectual endeavor. Practical illustrations taken from schools 
where the methods are successfully employed have been mul- 
tiplied throughout the book. To the extent permitted by 
its present status the aim has been to reflect in these pages 
the practicability of the method. Evidence from schoolmen 
has been presented. Theory has been avoided as much as 
possible. Scientific results have been cited. No teacher need 
hesitate to adopt the method in some form if she or he is 
willing to observe its detailed procedure and to regard teach- 
ing ^.s fundamentally a directing of the pupil's habits of study. 
This finer attitude on the part of the teacher will bring into 
fresh review the memories of the great teachers agone — 
teachers great because they inspired, immortal because their 
inspiration aimed at individuals who in the glow and in the 
power of this inspiration were led step by step to the realm 
of independent thought whence they in turn could lift man- 
kind a little nearer the Gloriously Unattainable. What they 
did teachers can do in this day of scientific supervision and 
direction of study. 



I 



APPENDIX 

REPORT BY THIRD ASSISTANT E. E. SMITH 
bainbridge school, richmond, virginia 

Introductory 

The Bainbridge school is both an Intermediate and Junior 
High School. There are 300 pupils in the former and 400 in the 
latter. In addition there are three rooms used for special classes. 

Both schools are operated on the same schedule, the Intermediate 
School, consisting of fifth grades only, having eight periods per 
day instead of nine as in the Junior High. Departmental work 
is given in both schools. 

Note: The Primary schools have the following grades: lA, 
iB, iC, 2A, 2B, 3A, 3B, 4A, and 4B. 

The Intermediate School 

The Intermediate School consists of five 5A grades and three 
SB grades. It receives all the fifth grade pupils of South Rich- 
mond and is fed by three schools, Powhatan, Oak Grove, and 
Franklin. 

The grades are arranged and named as follows : 5A1, 5A2, 5A3, 
SA4, sAs, and sBi, SB2, SB3. The sAi grade is much better 
than the SA5 grade, and the SA2 is better than the 5 A3, and so 
on. The pupils were originally distributed and arranged in 
this order according to standard tests in arithmetic, language, 

399 



i 



\ 



400 Appendix 

spelling, and reading. The distribution is very satisfactory 
both from the teacher's standpoint and from the super- 
visor's. In fact, any one competent to judge of the matter can 
easily detect the difference in ability between any two of the 
classes. 

Each of these grades is, in turn, grouped according to attain- 
ment in EACH SUBJECT. Individuals are promoted at any time 
in any subject from one group within a grade or from the fast 
group of one grade to the slow group of another. In other words, 
pupils climb by groups. 

The Junior High School 

The Jimior High School consists of twelve grades named as 
follows: lAi, 1A2, 1A3, iBi, 1B2, 2A1, 2A2, 2A3, 2B1, 2B2, 3A1, 
3A2. (The 3A's will become 3B's in February, and will be com- 
pleting the last term before entering the Senior High School of 
three years.) 

Pupils are placed in the classes named above according to the 
elective subjects that they have chosen. For instance, the elective 
subjects in the lA grade are Elementary Science, French, German, 
Spanish, Latin, and Practical English. Pupils may select one of 
these. Accordingly, those who select one of the modem languages 
are placed in the lAi grade, those who select Elementary Science 
or Latin are placed in the 1A2, and those who select Practical 
EngUsh are placed in the 1A3. Hence classes are arranged, as has 
been said, according to the elective subjects. 

Each of these grades is grouped according to attainment in each 
subject in the grade. Pupils are promoted from one group to 
another within the grade. 

The Difference between the Two 

Due to the fact that the Intermediate Classes are arranged ac- 
cording to abiUty and the Jimior High School Classes according 



Appendix 401 

to the subjects chosen, there is some variation in the way in which 
supervised study is conducted. The essential difference, however, 
lies in the fact that a pupil in the Intermediate School who is 
making great progress in one study or more studies can advance 
from one grade to another, climbing by groups across grade lines. 
The Jimior High School pupil, on the other hand, goes on in the 
grade by groups, but finds that he cannot cross the grade line 
because he is limited by his elective subject. Therefore, if such a 
thing can be said, it is even more imperative that there should be 
more direction of pupils under supervision in the Jimior High 
School than in the Intermediate School in order that this deficiency 
may be overcome, even though it is in a measure overcome by the 
fact that the subject matter becomes more difficult as the child 
advances; and yet even this may not help to overcome it but 
may retard it. 

Method in Both Schools 

As has been said, all classes are arranged in groups.* The num- 
ber of groups is assumed to be two. Group I, however, is of 
course distributed between Umits and group H is also distributed 
between limits. The best pupils of group I are not equal in ad- 
vancement to the slower pupils of group II. Transfers occur at 
any time. Group work in the class should be evident at a glance 
even to the casual observer. 

It is assumed that there is universal teaching according to the 
problem or laboratory method, and that these problems are sub- 
mitted to the supervisors so that they may be passed on as to 
whether they are social questions and not merely easy or difficult 
questions according to the generally accepted meaning of this 

*This grouping is not to be confused with the three-group plan which 
follows in the Junior High School. The former are arranged according to 
attainment and intelligence, while the latter are distributed for purposes of 
administration and study organization for the thirty-minute periods. 



402 Appendix 

work. It is also necessary that bibliography, seat work, and 
definitely outlined policies of what will be done in the considera- 
tion of each problem by the pupils be given so that they may 
be guided in obtaining knowledge and in learning how to get 
information. 

Not only do pupils work in groups, but they report to the mem- 
bers of the group by talking to them and not to the teachers. In 
making such reports and talks, it is a constant aim to develop in 
the children an increasing ability to stand and talk well to others 
who are interested in what is being said. In addition, rivalry 
between groups often becomes acute, and the attainment of the 
entire social body is thereby raised. . 

In other words, teachers are active in directing study and as- 
signments ; children are active in studying and getting knowledge. 
Each are active in cooperation, the lion's share of talking really 
falling to the pupils. 

It is necessary that every teacher, or practically every one, be 
able to teach the mother tongue. Plans are now on foot to require 
almost every teacher to teach some branch of English to the pupils 
of his home room. The reason for this statement is the fact that, 
if pupils must make more or less extended reports to groups and 
must write about this, that, and the other subject or activity, then 
the process is one which involves the use of English. In other 
words, functional grammar, language, spelling, and the like is an 
essential method in these schools, and the field of English extends 
into all the studies and all the activities ; and proper and wise 
guidance is necessary. 

Space will not permit a report on the methods used in each sub- 
ject of the curriculum. There is, however, a necessary differentia- 
tion of methods according to subjects. Supervised study in 
English must differ from supervision in algebra and the various 
sciences. 



k 



Appendix 403 

The Daily Schedule of Classes 

There are eight periods per day for the Intermediate School, 
and nine periods for the Junior High School. The former closes 
formally at 2.56 p.m. and the latter at 3.30. The periods are 
arranged as follows : 

ist period 9.CX) to 9.40 (40 min.) 

2nd period 9.43 to 10.23 (40 min.) 

3rd period 10.26 to 10.56 (30 min.) 

4th period 11.00 to 11.40 (40 min.) 

Recess . 11.43 ^o 12.13 

Sth period 12.17 to 12.57 (4° min.) 

6th period i.oo to 1.40 (40 min.) 

7th period 1.43 to 2.13 (30 min.) 

Sth period 2.16 to 2.56 (40 min.) 

9th period 3.00 to 3.30 (30 min.) 

Summary : Six forty-minute periods. 

Three thirty-minute periods.* 
One thirty-minute recess. 
Eight three-minute changes or 24 minutes in all. 

The Forty-Minute Pereods 

Teachers are required to observe the following distribution of 
time relative to the forty-minute periods : there must be enough 
time allowed for supervision of study, and it is assumed that at 
least one half of the entire time should be devoted to this. Teachers 
are not required, however, to supervise study for twenty minutes 
during each period, but are required to supervise study for ap- 
proximately 100 minutes per week, distributing this time where it 
is most effective. 

^ The Intennediate School has two thirty-minute periods instead of three. 



404 Appendix 

The time that is left is devoted to (a) assignments and (6) reci- 
tations. The approximate loo minutes which remain are used for 
these activities, and this time may be distributed according to the 
nature of the problem that the dass or groups are attacking. 

The Thirty-Minute Pesiods 

These periods may be termed the supervised study periods 
proper. Pupils are privileged during these half hours to do a 
number of things or to pursue one of a choice of activities con- 
nected with studying or educating themselves. 

The schedule for the third and seventh periods is changed each 
month so that the classes or groups may be supervised by the 
teachers who teach them. The wants and needs of the dass as a 
whole are determined by the teachers, and then the classes are 
distributed monthly according to the needs of the majority. Nor 
do the pupils of these classes study under the same teacher each 
day in the week, unless there is great demand for such a procedure. 
In some cases one teacher may receive the class two days out oi 
the week. In the majority of cases, however, the schedule of any 
one pupQ is probably different for each day in the week, dupUca- 
tions probably occurring in the third and severUh periods but hardly 
in either the third or seventh. By this means, practically all the 
teachers of any one grade supervise the pupils during <me of the 
thirty-minute periods in the week. 

To illustrate, let us assiune that the lAi grade, in room number 
13, is studying arithmetic during the third period on Monday. At 
the same time English Literature, Composition and Granunar, and 
United States History are being supervised in the other lA grades. 
Geography and Elementary Sdence are being supervised by the 
teachers of the lA groups, but they are conducting study in the 
2A1 and 2B2 grades respectively. Practically every teacher is 
available in some room in the building to the second and third 
group mentioned below. Then we may diagram this as follows : 



i 



Appendix 



405 



Group 

1. Study Arithmetic 

2. Study any sub- 

ject in room [ or 

3. Select a subject 



and go to the 
teacher of it J 



or 



Study arithmetic for 1 f Select a subject 
maximum attain- • or < and go to the 
ment J [ teacher of it 

Study arithmetic for 1 f Study any sub- 
maximum attain- > or < ject in room 
ment J [ 13 



It will be noted from the above, 

(i) This subject (Arithmetic) is studied on Monday. Others 
may find a place on the following days of the week. Hence the 
possibilities for studying at this period for the entire semester is 
very great. 

(2) The above groups are variable during or at the end of any 
month. 

(3) That a check is necessary for groups n and in. This is done 
by consultation of the teacher of arithmetic and the pupils (or 
any pupil) with any of the other teachers who may be concerned 
and then in turn between the subject teachers and the teacher of 
arithmetic whenever "returns" are necessary. In other words, 
the arithmetic teacher is responsible for the lAi pupils in room 13 
on Monday of each week. 

(4) While a schedule is maintained, nevertheless there is much 
flexibility. In the first place, pupils who are deficient in subjects 
are provided for a time to study these. In the second place, pupils 
who are not deficient may confer and be guided in selecting what 
subjects they wish to study. The limitations to the fact that they 
will be able to study the subject they select under supervision are 
forced only by the number of vacant seats with the subject 
teacher chosen. It will be noted that, in any case, they may 
sttidy the subject they want for they may remain in room 13. 
However, in the great majority of cases, trading is successfully 
effected. 



4o6 Appendix 

(s) Teachers have an excellent opportunity during this period 
to get into close touch with the pupils. Heart-to-heart talks 
bring out the difficulties that pupils meet in their school life, and 
many pupils can be guided in a wise choice of meeting these trials 
and difficulties. 

(6) Group I consists of those who are greatly in need of improve- 
ment ; group 2 of those who may or may not need improvement 
in the subject of arithmetic ; and group 3 consists of those who are 
proficient. Below 75%, so far as "grades " are concerned, is con- 
sidered deficient. Heart-to-heart talks often reveal the fact that 
proficiency is maintained at great expenditure of energy, and they 
result in giving the ways and means of economizing time and energy. 
It is found that mere " marks " do not always tell the whole story 
of one's struggles. 

(7) By means of the entire plan of supervised study (including 
both forty-minute and thirty-minute periods), pupils have the 
opportimity of doing practically all their studying in school under 
supervision of the teacher of the subject. Home study can then 
be used for reading or getting supplementary material, or prepar- 
ing special reports and the like. 

The Ninth Pemod 

During the ninth period all who may so elect may remain. In 
addition, all pupils who are in need of assistance on any subject 
remain to study this subject. Usually, all pupils who have a 
grade below 75% on any subject at the time the period is held 
are required to report to the teacher of this subject. 

All pupils report to their home rooms at the ninth period each 
day. Those whose school work warrant it may leave when the bell 
rings. Then the home room teacher directs the remaining pupils 
to the necessary subject teachers. Then, when any pupil shall 
have " worked up " on the subject, he is sent back to the home 
room teacher, who may or may not require him to " work up " on 



Appendix 407 

another subject. Of course, the home iDom teacher cannot arbi- 
trarily dictate to each and all pupils, but is guided by the record 
of the pupils from many teachers. 

The scheme is identical for each day of the entire semester. It 
is interesting to note how the number of pupils who have to re- 
main decrease in number from week to week and from day to day. 
It is also interesting to note the eager pupils seeking further help, 
although apparently proficient on all subjects. 

The Social or Extra-Curriculum Hour 

A graphical explanation of the third study period for the lAi 
grade has been given above. The following representation is for 
the same grade, on the same day, Monday, but during the seventh 
period when this grade is in room 18 with the Uterature teacher. 

This scheme holds good for only two days in the week at present 
— Mondays and Wednesdays. Otherwise, the seventh period is 
operated just as was explained for the third period above. It 
will be noticed in that explanation that six studies were being 
supervised for the lA grade pupils, while the lAi class was study- 
ing arithmetic. Now three of these teachers, — those of geography, 
arithmetic, and elementary science, — because of talents and train- 
ing that enable them to meet pupils in an informal or social way, 
give their time to developing in the children who wish it varied 
expression in 

Instnimental music. 
Drawing or pamting. 
Folk-dancing and the like, or 
Baloptican depicting selected scenes, etc. 

There is no formal instrucHon but informal expression during these 
two half hours. 

These extra-curriculum or social courses are open to pupils of 
groups 2 and 3 as referred to above, and any 15 pupils who ask for 



k 



408 Appendix 

any kind of legitimate educational enjoyment are given it, if it 
can possibly be provided. 

Classes are, as before, distributed for group supervision by 
monthly schedule, each assignment of classes to each teacher for 
each day in the week being determined, as far as possible, by the 
wants and needs of the majority of the pupils in the class or by 
the needs of group i. With the slight, but most important varia- 
tion in regard to the extra-curriculum courses, the scheme for 
the seventh period is identical in nature with that of the third 
period, the variables, of course, being the room and subject chosen 
by the children. In the explanation above, the extra-curriculum 
activities simply replace studying lessons. 



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Comments of Schoolmen on Supervised Study. Virginia Journal 

of Education, 1915, pp. 344-347. 

Some Reasons for and Results of Supervised Study. Virginia 

Journal of Education, 191 5, p. 287 ff. 

The Problem of Supervised Study. High School Quarterly. 

Athens, Georgia. May, 191 5. 

Holmes, W. H., School Organization. Davis Press. 

Individual V5. Class Instruction. School Review, Vol. XIV, pp. 635-640. 

Jones, Olive M., Teaching Children to Study. Education, XXX, 
pp. 242-244. December, 1909. 

Lewis, E. E., The Child who will not Study. Journal of Education, 
April IS, 191 5, p. 400. 

McMiJRRY, F., Improvement of the Study Period. N. E. A., 1906, 
pp. 102-108. 

Merriam, J. L., School Review, Vol. XVIII, pp. 627-^33. (Recitation 
and Study.) 

MiNNiCK, J. H., An Experiment in the Supervised Study of Mathe- 
matics. School Review, Vol. XXI, pp. 670-675. 

Moore, E. C, Training Pupils to Work. Western Journal of Education, 
Vol. VII, pp. 200-204. March, 1902. 

Plummer, F. W. , The Longer Day for Supervised Study. School Review, 
Vol. 22, May, 1914, p. 340. 

Reavis, W. C, Factors that Determine the Habits of Study of Grade 
Pupils. Elementary School Teacher, Vol. XII, pp. 71-81. Octo- 
ber, 191 1. 

Importance of a Study-program for High School Pupils. School 

Review, Vol. XIX, pp. 398-405. June, 191 1. 

Roberts, C. L., How to Study and Teaching How to Study. Educator- 
Journal, Vol. 10, pp. 626-629. August, 1910. 

RuEDiGER,.W. C, Teaching Pupils to Study. Education, Vol. XXIX, 
PP» 437"446. March, 1909. 

Search, P. W., The Pueblo Plan. Education Review, Vol. VII, pp. 154- 
170. Also W. H. Holmes, School Organization and the Individual 
Child. Davis Press, pp. 65-68. 



4i6 Bibliography 

Seashore, C, Journal Educational Psychology, VoL n, No. 6, p. 348. 

Sensible Directions of Study, School Review, November, 1914, pp. 635, 
636. (Reference to work of F. M. Giles in DeKalb, Bl.) 

Sheldon, W. D., A Neglected Cause of Retardation. Educational Re- 
view, 1910. 

Strayer, G. D., Teaching Children How to Study. Atlantic Eduoi- 
tional Journal, VoL IV, pp. 285-85, 299. April, 1909. 

The Teaching Process, Chapter VIQ. MacmiUan. New York, 

1911. 

SwETT, H. P., Teaching Pi^>i]s How to Study. Journal of Education, 
Vol. 69, K>. 631-632. June 10, 1909. 

Teaching High School Pupils How to Study. School Review, Vol. 
XX, pp. 505-515, October, 1912. 

Teaching How to Study, Brown University Teachers Association. April 
22 and 23, 1910. 

The Batavia Plan after Fourteen Years of TriaL Elementary School 
Teacher, Vol. XH, pp. 449-459. June 12. 

The Teacher's Use of the Pupil's Study Time in Secondary Mathematics. 
Wisconsin Journal of Education, January, 1913, pp. 6-8. 

TiGHE, R. J., Teaching Children How to Study. North Carolina Asso. 
of School Superintendents and Principals. Proceedings, 19 10. 
Raleigh. 

Whipple, G. M., How to Study Effectively. School and Home Educa- 
tion. Bloomington, Dl., January, February, April, 1916. 

Wiener. The Modem High School by Johnston and Others. (Refer- 
ence to plan of divided period in Newark, N.J.) 

Williams, C. W., The Scientific Study of the College Student. Science, 
Vol. XXXVm. July 25, 1913. 



k 



INDEX 



Abbreviations, 189. 
Abstract conceptions, 46. 
Accuracy, 56, 99, 124, 125, 189, 207, 219, 
264, 293. 

and speed, 38, 39, 381. 
Achievement, 29, 62, 89. See also Success. 

and democracy, 25. 
Adds, 67. 
Acting, 249. 
Addition, 294. 
Addresses, public, 244-247. 
Ade, George, 250. 
Adjectives and adverbs, 237. 
Adjustment, 215. 
Adolescents, 68, 93, 229. 
Adverbs and adjectives, 237. 
Advertisements, 233, 278. 

in mathematics, 301. 
iEsthetics, 306. 
Age, 262. 

Agriculture, 165, 312 ff. 
Aims, 91. 
Air, 306. 

circulation, 80, 81. 
Alderman, L. R., 226, 382. 
Alertness, 56, 65. 
Algebra: 

amount of time spent studying, 165. 

and girls, 287 fif. 

examinations in, 298, 299. 

methods of stud3dng, 291, 293, 300. 

pupils' ability in, 40-48. 

rate and amount of work in, 36-38. 

stated conferences in, 99. 

supervised study in, 134 ff., 302, 303. 

value of, 289. 
All-round pupil, 58. 
Alternate daily periods, 96, 158, 159. 
Ambiguity, 238. 
Ambition, 87, 306. 
Amusements, 10, 11, 26, 278. 



Anabolism, 64 ff . 

Analysis, 178, 218, 223, 224, 225, 240, 261, 

302. 
Analytics, 291. 
Apparatus, 125. 
Appearance of pupil, 88, 89. 
Appendix, use of, 122. 
Appetite, 70. 
Apples, 69. 

apple butter, 70. 
Application, 21, 88, 123, 205, 206, 215, 218- 

220, 225, 297. 
Archaeology, 229. 

Argxmientation, 229, 233-235, 248, 249. 
Arithmetic, 104, 105, 289. 
Art, 56, 58, 381. 

aim of stud3dng, 373 ff. 

and composition, 232. 

and history, 262. 

pupil's liking for, 373. 

supervising study of, 372-382. 
Artistic reading, 249, 250. 
Assembly hall, 96-98. 

criticism of, 97, 98. 

study program in, 1 1 7-1 20. 
Assignments, 86, 93, 129, 130, 143-153, 168, 

193- 
abstract, 147. 
amount of time for, 147 ff. 
attractive, 143. 
class, 145. 

cooperative, Vm, 129, 143, 278^286. 
definite, 131, 143, 144. 146, I47f I4d. 

177- 
general, 147. 
hurried, 18, 23. 
hygienic, 93. 
indefinite, 23. 
individual, 143, 145, 147. 
informal, 148. 
intensive, 20. 



2E 



417 



41 8 



Index 



Assignments, in civics, 278-286. 

in debates, 248. 

in history, 262 flf., 274, 275. 

in mathematics, 292 ff., 302, 303. 

in supervised study, 169-172 flf. 

kinds, 145 ff. 

long, 24. 

making, 144. 

memorizing, 211. 

mental processes in, 145 fn. 

Merriam, J. L., on, 148, 149. 

motivation in, 23, 147. 

omitting, 99. 

page, 20, 14s flf. 

paragraph, 145 flf. 

problem, 145 £f., 258. 

reading first time, 122, 125. 

reasonable, 84. 

remembering, 149, 293. 

standing, 236. 

study after, 118. 

study before, 148. 

testing, 156. 

time for, 131, 148. 

topic, 14s flf., 281-286. 

understanding, 122, 152, 178, 206. 

university type of, 177. 
Association, 57, 124, 125, 202, 207, 209, 

218, 259, 261, 267. 
Astronomy, 301. 

Athletics, 42, 56, 73, no, 234, 278. 
Atmosphere, 313. 
Attention, 56, 57, 60, 83, 84, 92, 97, 120, 

125, 170. 
Attitude in studying, 60. 
Atwater. See Vost and Atwater. 
Auditory images, 46, 49, 50, 61, 114. 
Authority, 25, loi. 
Authors, 178, 196, 203. 
Automobiles, 73. 
Autimin, moods caused by, 86. 
Ayres, L. P., 14, 34. 

Bacon, Frands, 69. 
Bachelor apartments, 4. 
Bachelors, 4. 
Bagley, W. C. 58. 

Bainbridge, High School, Richmond, Vir- 
ginia, 296, 297, 399 fif. 
Ballou, 229. 



Bananas, 70. 

Bands, 381. 

Banquets, 244. 

Baseball, 73, 74, 92. 

Basebumers, 79. 

Basketball, 73, 89. 

Batavia, New York, plan of supervised 

study, 128, 129. 
Beans, 66, 70. 
Beauty, dvic, 277 flf. 
Bedchamber, 72, 73. 
Beef roast, 69. 

hamburg steak, 70. 

salt, 69. 
Beethoven, 199. 
Bell, Alexander, 208. 
Bell and Lancaster, 13. 
Bible students, 168. 
Bicycling, 74, 92. 

Biography, study of, 89, 243, 301. 
Blackboards, 78. 

and grammar, 224. 

use of, in supervised study, in. 
Blackduck, Minnesota, 216 flf. 
Blood, circulation, 64, 79. 

pressure, 67. 
Bloomington, Indiana, 386 fif. 
Blue, Hal G., 123-125. 
Boccacdo, 90. 
Bonser, Frederick, 213. 
Book, Wm., 68, 219. 
Bookkeeping, 97. 
Book, loose-leaf, loi. 
Book reviews, 169. 
Books, Sw Textbooks. 

dosing, in stud3dng, 194. 

dependence on, 51. 

in hbtory, 265-267. 

modem, 240. 

reference, 116, 142, 170, 174-177. 

use of, 19, 20, 118, 122, 125, 171, 
194. 
"Bom short," 42, 43. 
Boston, Massachusetts, 70. 
Boys, and oral composition, 238. 

fatigue of, 93. 

tall, 88, 89. See also Individual diflfer- 
ences. 
Brace outline, 182, 183, 224. 
Braces as notice signs, 167. 



Index 



419 



Brain, 68. 

cells, 67. 

food, 66. 
Bread, 66, 69, 70. 
Breakfast, 69. 

studying before, 162. 
Breslidi, £. R., quoted on assignment, 143- 

144, 388. 
Bridges, 278. 
Briefs, 180, 234-235, 248. 
Brilliant pupil, 58, 150, 267. 
Bristol, Connecticut, 380. 
Brooklyn, New York, 291. 
Brooks, Phillips, 178. 
Brown, J. C, and Minnick, J. A., 221, 253. 
Brown, J. Stanley, 27. 

quoted on "delayed group'' plan, 116. 

quoted on double period plan, 133-140, 
38s, 386. 
Browning, 366. 
Burbank, Luther, 308. 
Byron, Lord, 90. 

Cabbage, i. 

Cafeteria, 68. 

Cairo, Illinois, 389, 390. 

Caldum, 67. 

Calculus, 291. 

Calory values, 67, 70. 

Cambridge, Massachusetts, 32. 

Campaign, 262. 

Canlals, 141. 

Canoeing, 73. 

Capacity, native, 14, 15, 21, 22, 31, 33. 

analyzed, 56, 57, 61, 96. 

in mathematics, 288. See also Lidivid- 
ual abilities. 
Carbohydrates, 66. 
Carbon in food, 67. 

Cards, public speaking notes, 246; re- 
cording references, loi, 185-188. 
Carelessness, 55, 58, 185, 295. 
Carlyle, 64. 

Carpet in bedchamber, 73. 
Case, 237. 

Causes in history, 266, 270. 
Central High School, Newark, New Jersey, 

298 ff. 
Century, 262. 
Cereals, 66, 67. 



Cerebellum, 68. 

Chance variations, 33. 

Chancellor, William, on image types, 50-52, 

54- 
Chandler, Supt. J. A. C, 159. 
Channing, Edward, 256. 
Character. See Dispositions. 
Charities, 277. 

Charlottenburg, Germany, 32. 
Cheating, 205, 295. 
Checks as notice signs, 167. 
Cheerfulness, 84, 86, 87, 89, 250. 
Cheese, 66. 
Chemistry, 165, 305. 
Chicago, University of : 

assignments in high school, 143, 144. 

conference on German, 321 ff. 

mathematics in, 300, 301, 388. 

plan of directing study, 1 2 i-i 23. 

sleep habits of President Harper, 72. 
Children, independence of, 7. 

indigent, 70. 
Chittenden, R. H., 66. 
Chromatin, 67. 
Church, H. O., 353. 
Church life, 278. 
Churahman, P. N., 331. 
Cicero, Illinois, 353. 
Cigarettes, 65. 
Cigars, 65. 

Citizenship, 276 ff., 290. 
City life, 4, 5. 
Civics: 

and themes, 229, 232. 

assignments in, 147, 278-281. 

dvic beauty, 277 ff. 

current topics, 281-286. 

methods of studying, 277-286. 

problems in, 55. 

pupU's ability in, 40 ff. 

supervising study of, 276-286. 
Civilization, 2, 214. 
Clam chowder, 70. 
Clark College, 331. 
Class instruction : 

aided by conferences, 103. 

criticism of, 31 ff., 51. 

needs of, 32. 

psychology of, 98. 

imassigned teacher, 104, 128. 1 



420 



Index 



I 



Class instruction, vs, individual instruction, 

14, 18, 19, 21, 31. 
Class management, 13, 14, 34, 49, 52. 

and supervised study, 22, 58, 59, 128-160. 

in mathematics, 293-297, 302, 303. 
Classroom, as study hall, 97. 
Clearness, 167, 207, 232. 
Climate and studying, 90, 91, 141. 
Clippings, 301. 
Club life, 279. 
Clubs, history, 263. 

mathematics, 301. 
Cocoa, 70. 
Coffee, 6s, 314. 
Coherence, 238. 
Coleridge, 64. 
Colloquialism, 237. 
Cobrs, memory for, 50. 
Columbia, Missouri, plan of supervised 

study, 129-133. 
Columbia, South Carolina, 310. 
Columbia University, 383, 384. 
Columbus, 208. 

Colvin, S. S., on mental images, 49, 52, 53. 
Commencement day, 262. 
Common sense, 95. 
Communication, 277 S. 
Community as study hall, 277. 
Comparison, 118. 

in history, 264. 

parallel outline in, 182, 193, 264. 
Complacent pupil, 58. 
Composition, oral, 238-251. 
Composition, written. See also Themes. 

cheating in, 295. 

correcting papers, 26, 27, 139, 236, 393. 

forms of, 229 ff. 

reports of, 60. 

supervising study of, 139, 221-238, 251. 
Concentration, 20, 56, 74, 84, 91, 92, 118, 

I30, 122, 125. 
Concepts, in history, 261. 

in studying, 29, 85. 
Conclusions, 180. 
Conducted study period, 99. 
Conference book, 99, loi, 102, 125. 
Conference period, 99. 
Conferences, 86, 96, 98-103. 

by appointment, 99, 100. 

stated, 98, 99. 



Conferences, technic of, 100-103. 

Confidence, 58, 85, 86, 87, 219. 

Contentiousness, 92. 

Contrast, 118, 193, 231. 

Control, 68. 

Conversation, 100, 239-243, 335, 336. 

Codperativeness, 89. 

Copjdng notes, 201-203. 

Cornell University, 71. 

Cornell, W. S., quoted on school lunches, 7a 

Correcting papers, 26, 27, 139, 236, 393. 

Correlations, 40-44, 53, 206, 308, 262, 371, 

289, 300, 301, 302, 318. 
Cost of living, 4. 
Cotton, 141. 

Coulter, J. G., quoted on adence, 313-314. 
Courage, 89, 94. 
Course, 16. 
Courtis, S. A., 14. 

Crain, C. M. See Frailey and Crain. 
Cram, R. A., on art, 373 ff. 
Cramming, 204, 205. 
Crawfordsville, Indiana, 340. 
Credit, 16, 288, 291. 
Crossbars, 73. 

Crosses as notice signs, 167. 
Currents, 141. 
Current topics, 381-386. 
Curriculum, 16, 34, 49, 389, 390. 

Daily extra period, plan of siq)ervised 

study, 156-158. 
Daily work, report of, 60. 
Dancing, 93. 

Darwin, Charles, 199, 308, 348. 
Dates as food, 69, 70. 
Dates in history, 354 ff., 361. 
Day tickets, 310. 
Dealey, 4. 

Dearborn, W., on weQ-being, 67-69. 
Debating, 89, 347-349. 
Decade, 262. 
Deceitful pupil, 58. 
Deduction, 25. 
Deformity, 89. 

DeKalb, Illinois, 99, 130, 1 31, 153, 163. 
" Delayed group ** plan of supervised study, 

IIS. 116. 
Democracy, and achievement, 35. 
and history, 358. 



Index 



421 



Democracy, and individual pupil, 32. 

and public speaking, 243. 

and social efficiency, 215. 

as a stimulus, 89, 93* 
Demonstration, 289. 
Denver, Cobrado, 32. 
Depew, Chaimcey, 244. 
Deportment, 60. 

Descriptive writing, 229, 231, 232, 289. 
Desk, pupil's, 75. 

Details, avoiding too many, 179, 180. 
Detroit, Michigan, 59, 60. 
Dewey, decimal classification, 175 ff. 
Dewey, John, 146, 214. 
Diagrams, 125, 183, 223, 224, 233. 
Dickens, Charles, 225. 
Diction, 237. 
Dictionary, use of, 118, 120, 139, 166, 172, 

i93i 259, 262, 26s, 275- 
Diet. See Eating. 
Difficulties, analyzing, 109, in. 

anticipated and prevented, 115, 116. 

dealing with, in conferences, loi, 103. 

example of, in geometry, 109, no. 

in history, 271. 

in mathematics, 293. 

recording, 112, 113, 114. 
Digestion, 64, 71. 
Dignity, loi. 
Discipline, 119. 
Discouragement, 85. 
Discoveries and inventions, 315-317. 
Discussion, 239-243, 259. 
Disease, 64. 
Dishonesty, 295. 

Dispositions, individual, 34, 54-61. 
Distractions, 21, 26, 82, 91-93, 98, 115, 120, 

125, 166. 
Divided period plan of supervised study, 
84, 96, 127, 128-133, 153, 157, 158, 160. 

Batavia, New York, plan, 128, 129. 

Colimibia, Missouri, plan, 129-133, 148, 
149. 

schedule of, at Rochester, New York, 154. 

technic of, 140-153. 
Doing and learning, 218-220. 
Domestic science, 165, 185. 

curriculum, 65, 66, 305. 

sewing, no. 

supervising study of, 134, 244, 262, 291. 



Domestic science, textiles, no. 

Don Quixote, 349. 

Double period in Joliet, Illinois, 133-156. 

Dowden, 365. 

Dowman, W., quoted on direction of study, 

123-125. 
Drama, 362, 3g3. 
Dramatic work in language, 336 ff. 
Dress, pupils', 88, 381. 
Drill, 103, 177, 223, 318. 
Driving, 74. 
Drowsiness, 69, 81. 
Duke, D. C, quoted on sleep, 73. 
Dumb-bells, 73. 

Earhart, LidaB., 141, 213. 

Earning money, 7. 

Earth, 306. 

Eating, 19, 64. See also Food. 

amount and quality of, 66-70. 

time of, 70, 71. 
Economics, 165. 
Edison, 62, 64, 214, 308. 

quoted on sleep, 71, 72. 
Education : 

departments of, in universities, 95, 106, 

"S- 
false conceptions of, 25, 205. 

formal or organized, 87, 277 ff. 

meaning of, 215. 

primitive, i. 

social, 2. 
Educational values, 25, 27. 

of history, 257 ff. 

of mathematics, 289 ff. 
Efficiency, 67. 
Effort: 

abuse of, 17, 63. 

conditions of, 63. 

directed, 17, 18. 

disturbed by sex-instinct, 87, 88. 

reporting, 60. 

rewarding, 90, 130, 157, 203. 

source of, 64. 
Eggs, 66, 67, 69. 
Electricity, 306. 
Electric fans, 80. 
Electric lighting, 78. 
Elementary school : 

course in history, 254 ff. 



d 



422 



Index 



V 



Elementary school, eighth grade in, ii6. 

English in, 223. 

unassigned teacher in, 104, 105. 
Elhuff, Lewis, on science, 314, 315. 
Elimination, 34, 88. 
Elizabeth, New Jersey, 32. 
Embarrassment, 89. 
Emotion, 46, 83, 85-91, 249. 
Encouragement, 90, 138. 
Encyclopedias, 166, 172 ff. 
Endurance, 56, 63, 65. 
Energy, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68. 

pnysical, 306, 312 ff. 

wasteful, III, 146. 
England, heating of schools in, 79. 
English. See also Composition, correct- 
ing papers, literature, themes. 

in study hall, 97. 

methods of studying, 125, 169, 172, 193, 

196, 215 ff- 

notebook work in, 184. 

pupils' ability in, 40-44, 46-48. 

stated conference in, 99. 

supervising study of, 134, 139, 155, 385. 

time spent in stud3diig, 165. 
Enthusiasm, 27, 84, 240. 
Environment, 33, 91, 115. 
Epoch, 263. 
Equations, 396, 297. 
Erosion, 141. 
Essays, 227. 
Euphony, 238. 
Euphoria, 68, 343. 
European war, 214, 219, 357. 
" Evangeline," study of, 368. 
Examinations : 

in mathematics, 297 ff. 

mental types in, 50, 151. 

oral, 51. 

preparing for, 184, 203-306. 

variety in, 169. 
Examinations and reviews, 319. 
Exceptional pupib, 48, 54. 
Experience, 62, 147, 208. 
Experiments, 308, 309, 311. 
Expertness, 240. 

Explaining new lessons, 23, 144, 184, 295. 
Exposition, 51, 184. 

forms of, in composition, 229, 232, 233. 

in history, 258. 



Extemporary speaking, 348. 
Eyesight, 205. See also Light. 

Fabre, J. H., 349. 
Facial expression, 249. 
Failures, 85, 86, 184. 
Faintness, 81. 
Fair-mindedness, 87. 
Faith, 62. 
Family: 

architectural conditions of, 5-7. 

biological conditions of, 4, 5. 

colonial and modem, 3. 

independence of children, 7. 

industrial conditions, 7, 8. 

making necessities of life, 7. 

social conditions of, 8, 10, 55. 

traits, 55. 
Fatigue, 65, 92, 93. 
Fat people, 67. 
Fat-produdng foods, 66, 67. 
Feeling, 262. 
Feeling tone, 85-91. 
Fiction. See Novels. 
Fielding, H., diet of, 69. 
Figs, 69. 

Figures of speech, 238, 366. 
Filing, 186 ff., 195. 
Filing cases, 186 ff. 
Fish, 66, 69. 
Flannigan, M. L., 39. 
Fletcher, Horace, 69, 7a 
Flux, philosophy of, 33. 
Fly-leaves, use of, 171, 195. 
Food, 64-70, 314. 
Food chemistry, 66, 314- 
Football, 73, 89, 234. 
Footnotes, 122, 193. 
Ford, Simeon, 244. 

Formal discipline, 336, 389, 318, 321. 
Form of discourse, 238. 
Fowl as food, 69. 

Frailey, L. E., and Grain, C. M., investi- 
gation of pupils* abilities in different 
subjects, 39-48. 
Franklin, Benjamin, 62. 
Frederick the Great, 69, 225. 
French, supervising the study of, 134, 137, 

138, 318 ff., 335i 336, 341 ff. 
Friction, 62, 63. 



Index 



423 



Fruits, 66, 67, 69. 

Galileo, 62. 

Gammans, H. W., on grammar, 323, 225, 

236. 
Geography, 105, 141, 165, 208, 259. 
Geometry : 

attitude toward, 287 ff. 

difficulties in, 109, no, 295. 

examinations in, 299. 

groups in, 294. 

memorizing in, 295. 

method of studying, 213, 300. 

pupils' ability in, 40-48, 91. 

supervising study of, 134, 138, 155, 303. 

value of, 289. 
German, 91. 

amount of time spent studying, 165. 

courses in, 322-324. 

stated conference in, 99. 

supervising study of, 134, 137, 138, 
318 £f., 341 ff. 
Gestures, 246, 249. 

Giles, F. M., quoted on directions of 
study, 120, 121. 

on pupils' habits of study 163, 172, 193, 
213, 258. 

on weekly supervision of study, 153, 154, 
156. 
Girls. See also Individual differences. 

and algebra, 287, 291. 

and oral composition, 239. 

dress of, 88. 

fatigue of, 93. 
Goal idea, 199. 
Goethe, 321. 
Golf, 73. 
Glee clubs, 381. 
Grading. See Maiking. 
Graham wafers, 70. 
Grammar, 325. 

method of studsring, 183, 222-226, 321, 
325-330. 

un assigned teacher in, 105. 
Gravity system, 81. 
Gray days, moods caused by, 86. 
Greek, 319. 
Grit, 62, 63, 89. 
Groups : 

according to mental types, 52. 



Groups, adjustment of, 59. 

assignments according to, 149. 

co6peration in, 61. 

delayed plan, 116. 

in mathematics, 294 ff. 

study coaching, in. 

supervising study of, 97, 151 ff. 
GurUtt method, 325-327. 
Gjmmasiums, 73, 135. 
Gymnastics, 74. 

Habit, sSf S6, 60. 

of speech, 222. 

of study, 120-126. 

of writing, 227. 
Hamburg steak, 70. 
Hamilton, Miss Lucy, 128. 
"Harbor, The," 359- 
Hardship, 62. 

Harper, habits of sleep, 72. 
Hanis, L. H., 320. 
Hart, Bushnell, 256, 257, 258. 
" Harvester, The, " 359. 
Haste, 295. 

Hastings, Nebraska, 104. 
Haughty pupil, 58. 
Hawthorne, 225. 
Hayward, F., 360. 
Headings, 179, 181. 
Health, 19, 55, 62, 64-74. 

meaning of, 64, 65, 205. 

study of, 277, 280. 
Heart rate, 67. 
Heat: 

amount of, for studying, 79. 

foods producing, 66. 

kinds of heating, 79, 8a 

in science, 313 ff. 

smnmer, 90. 
Heck, W. H., 164. 
Hegel, 349. 

Henry VIH, diet of, 69. 
Heroism, 89. 

High school, 29, 55, 70, 106, 22a 
Hill, 159. 

Hillegas, M. B., 229. 
History, 24, 360. 

American, 40, 41, 105, 253, 265, 268-270. 

amount of time studying, 165. 

andent, 272-275. 



424 



Index 



I 



History, clubs, 363. 

correlations, 308. 

in study hall, 97. 

mental processes in studying, 261 ff. 

methods of studying, 84, 85, 86, 121, 125, 
i32» 13s ffi 172, 182, 252-275. 

notebooks in, 184, 191. 

supervised study of, 155, 252-275. 

value of, 257 ff. 
Holmes, W. H., fn. 32. 

quoted on unassigned teacher, 104, 105. 

on assignment, fn. 145. 
Holyoke, Massachusetts^ 223. 
Home life, 3-10, 73, 93- 
Home study. See Stud^ng at home. 
Hope, 63. 

Horseback riding, 73. 
Hot-air furnace, 79, 80. 
Hot-water heating, 80. 
"House of Life" by Rossetti, axa 
Howells, Dean, 349. 
Hugo, ^ctor, 225. 
Humanity, 71. 
Humidity, 67, ^i. 
Hundred Years' War, 266. 
Huneker, James, 225. 
Hunting, 73. 
Huxley, 214. 
Hydrogen in food, 67. 
Hysteria, 92. 

Illinois, University of, investigation by 
School of Education of pupils' abilities 
in different subjects, 39-48. 
system of vocational guidance, 53-56. 
Illustrations, 122, 123, 125, 145, 183, 189, 

197, 199, 201, 206, 233. 
Image types, 34, 45, 46, 45^54. 
Imagery, 238. 

in poetry, 365, 366. 
Imagination, 57, 259, 262. 
Imitation, 222. 
Imitators, 29. 
Impatience, 295. 
Important matter : 
diecking and underscoring, 166-168, 169. 
organizing, 118, 179 ff., 193, 248. 
selecting, 21, 120, 122, 124, 125, 146, 155, 
258, 259, 261, 270. 
Impression, first, 207, 219. 



Impulsiveness, 55, 87. 
Incentives, 19, 85, 88. 
Indentations, 179 ff., 197. 
Index, using, 122. 

making, 192. 
Indifference, 84, 87, 93. 
Indigent children, 70. 
Individual ability. See Individual dif- 
ferences. 
Individual differences, 13-15, 22, 31-34, 
381. 

according to image types, 34, 45, 46, 49- 

54. 

according to sex, 45-49, 61. 

according to subjects, 40-44. 

schemes of tabidating, 55-61. 
Individual diqx)sitions, 34, 54-61. 
Individual instruction : 

in Batavia, New York, 128, 129. 

in study coaching, 112. 

present interest in, 32. 
Individuality, 229. 
Industrious habits, 56, 58, 62. 
Industry, and composition, 229. 

and language, 318. 

at home, 7, 8. 

modem, 8, 252. 
Ingenuity, 63. 
Ink, 167, 192. 

red, 198, 227, 236. 
Initiative, 29, 95. 
Inserted leaves, 171, 185, 192. 
Insight, 87. 
Instinct, sex, 87. 

self-preservative and social, 88r-9o, 199. 

social, 229. 
Institutes, conferences at, 98. 
Instruction, individual. See also Super- 
vised study, 32, 112, 128, 129. 

unit of, z6. 
Interest, 20, 22, 55, 56, 63, 84, 92, 129, 136, 

199, 228, 229, 252 ff., 277. 
Interlacing outline, 183, 184. 
Intonation, 249. 
Introductions, 170, 180. 
Inventions and discoveries, 3X5-'3i7. 
Iron in food, 67. 
Irritability, 92. 
Italian language, 91. 
Ivanhoe, 171. 



Index 



425 



Jackson, Michigan, 103. 
James, Henry, 225. 
James, William, 83. 
Jelly, currant, 69. 
Joliet, Illinois : 

delayed group plan, 115, 116. 

double period, 133-140, 302, 303, 328- 

330, 385. 
no home study, 26, 136. 
prevention of repeaters, 28, 136. 
Johnson, N.C., quoted on distribution of 
distractions, 92. 
on pupils' habits of study, 161-163, 258 ff . 
on recreation and study, 74. 
Johnston, Charles Hughes, 16, fn. 18, 

383, 384. 
Johnston, W. Dawson, 263. 
Jonson, Ben, diet of, 69. 
Josephine of France, 72. 
Joynes and Meissner, 325. 
Judd, C. H., fn. 21. 

on history, 254. 

on mathematics, 295, 296. 

quoted on rate and amount of work, 35- 
38. 
Judgment, 95. 

Junction City, Kansas, 379. 
Junior high school, 12, 34. 

daily schedule of supervised study, 154. 

in Richmond, Virginia, 159, 399 ff. 

vocational guidance, 55, 56. 
Justice, 89. 

Kansas City, Kansas, 28. 

Kant, 214. 

Katabolism, 64 ff . 

Keeping pupils in after school, 103. 

Kennedy, detective, 360. 

Kennedy, John, 103. 

Kinaesthetic, images, 50, 52. 

sensations, 68. 
Kingsley outlines, 333 ff. 
Knowledge, 85, 86, 124, 205, 208, 228, 339, 
240, 251. 

Laboratory, 125. 
in dvics, 278 ff. 
in science, 308-311. 

method of, in studjdng, 130, 133, 182, 
185. 



(( 



(( 



Lacrosse, 73. 

Lady Baltimore," 359. 

Lady of the Lake," 171. 
Lamp, student, 76. 
Lancaster, 351, 373. 
Lancaster and Bell, 13. 
Language, 24. See also Latin. 

aim of, 318-320. 

French, 134, 137, 138, 318 ff., 33S, 336, 
341 ff. 

German, 134, 137, 138, 318 ff., 322-324. 

method of studying, 172. 

pupils' ability in, 46-48, 228. 

supervising study of, 134, 318 ff., 32S"347« 

translation, 122 ff., 132, 219. 
Laska, 250. 
Lassitude, 81. 
Latin: 

amount of time in studying, 165. 

and English, 320. 

dislike of, 253. 

rate and amount of work in, 35, 36. 

pupils' ability in, 40, 41, 48, 340. 

stated conference in, 99. 

supervising study of, 134, 137, 318 ff., 

332, 333-33S1 341 ff. 
Law cases, 224. 
Laziness, 19, 55, 56. 
Leadership, 27, 56, 205, 215. 
Learning and doing, 218^^20. 

capacity for, 57. 

not easy, 63. 
Ldsure, 119. 

Leland Stanford University, 335* 
Le Mars, Iowa, 32. 
Lentils, 66. 

Leonardo da \^ci, diet of, 69, 211. 
Lequoc, 360. 

Lesson. See Assignment ; Recitation. 
Lesson plans, 141. 

book for, 141-143. 
Lesson types, 141, 142. 
Letter writing, 230. 
Lewis Institute, Chicago, Illinois, 291 
Library, ignorance of students in, 30. 

in history, 262. 

in mathematics, 300, 301. 

method of stud3dng with, 133, 135 ff«> 
174-177- 
Life, 95, 170. 305. 



426 



Index 



Life, modem, 263. 

study of, 277 flf. 
Liggett High School. See Detroit 
Light, 19. 

acetylene, 78. 

amount of, 77-79. 

electric, 77-79. 

gasoline, 78, 166, 307, 3x5. 

quality of, 76. 

niles of lighting, 75-79. 

student lamp, 76. 

sufficient, 77. 
Lincoln, Nebraska, 291. 
Lipoids, 67. 
Listening, 241. 
Literature, 91, 92, 360. 

and composition, 239. 

and grammar, 225. 

correlations with, 208. 

drama, 362 363. 

essay, 360, 361. 

interest in, 199. 

method of studying, 193, 196, 3o8» 220. 

novels, 358-360. 

puiuls' preferences, 351, 352. 

supervising study of, 132, 155, 156, 348- 

371- 
value of, 348-351. 

Living expenses, 279. 

Living room, 164. 

Lobsein, M., 45. 

Locke, John, diet of, 69. 

Locution, 237. 

Lodge, G., 331. 

Logical memory, 211. 

Loisette, 211. 

Loneliness, 86, 87. 

Loose-leaf notebook, 185, 190, 196, 309 ff. 

Lounsbury, T. R., quoted on written com- 
position, 235. 

Love, 306. 
among pupils, 87. 

Loveland, I. M., quoted on daily extra 
period, 156-158, 389. 

Lunch box, 68. 

Lupin, 360. 

Lutz, Miss Caroline, 173. 

Lyell, Charles, 349. 

McDougaU, William, 68. 



McMiury, Charles, 141, 256. 

McMiury, Frank, 133, 146. 

Mabie, H. W., 360, 361. 

Macaroni, 70. 

Macaulay, diet of, 69, 349. 

" Macbeth," 155. 

Maeterlinck, M., 250, 349. 

Magazines, 123, 125, 142, z66, 172 ff., 224, 

240. 
Magnetism, 306. 
Maine, coast of, 87. 
Manila covers, 198. 
Manila folders, 186 ff. 
Mannheim, Germany, 32. 
Manual training, 91. 

and history, 262. 

pupils' dislike of, 253. 

supervising study of, 134, 185, 186. 
Maps, 123, 193, 259, 260, 270, 367. 
Marconi, 308. 
Margin, use of, 170, 171, 180, 181, 185, 192, 

213. 
Marking, 18, 24, 26, 90. 

basb of, loi, 102, 130, 151, 152, 160, 168, 
171, 205. 
Marriage, 4. 
Mathematics. See also Algebra. 

amount of time in studying, 165. 

arithmetic, geometry, 24, 38, 46-48, 86, 
92, 121, 122. 

assignments in, 143. 

difficulties in, 293, 294. 

groups in, 150. 

method of studying, 213, 219. 

notebooks in, 184, 293. 

supervising study of, 155, 253, 287- 

304. 
value of, 289 ff. 
Measurements in education, 24, 53, 95, 

"5- 
Meat, 66, 69, 70. 
Mechanical drawing, 97. 
Mediocrity, 54. 

Memorizing, 14, 118, 124, 138, 193, 200, 
201, 205, 218, 220. 

and artistic reading, 249. 

in debates, 248. 

in geometry, 289. 

in history, 264, 271. 

methods of, 207-213, 331-333. 



I 



Index 



427 



Memorizing, poetiy, 367 ff. 

vocabulary, 331-333. 
Memory, according to sex, 45, 46. 

images, 49-54- 

kinds, 57, 210, 211. 
Mental hygiene, 31. 
Mental testing, 115. 
Mental traits, 55, 56. 
Mental types. See also Image types, 34, 

97, 114, lis. 
Merriam, J. L., quoted on supervised 
study in G>lumbia, Maryland, 129- 

133- 

on stud3dng history, 272-275. 

"Evangeline," 368 ff. 
Metabolism, 64, 68. 
Method, general, 95, 347. 

natural, 325. 

psychological, 325. 

traditional, in language, 325. 
Meumann, £., 52. 
Michael Angelo, 69, 214. 
Migration, 277. 
Milk, 66, 70. 
Mill, J. S., 349- 
Miller, I. E., 214. 
MiUikin, James, University, 173. 
Milton, 64, 214. 

Mind wandering, 19, 21, 56, 84, 170. 
Mineral matter in eating, 67. 
Mining, 141. 

Minnesota Educational Association, 254. 
Minnick, J. A., investigation of mathemati- 
cal abilities of boys and girls, 46-48, 
387 ff. 

on English, 221, 253. 
Mistakes in composition, 237, 238. 
Mnemonics, 211, 212, 260. 
Mohammed, diet of, 69. 
Monitors, 13, 97. 
Monroe, W. S., quoted on pupils' work in 

mathematics, 38, 46. 
Montaigne, 349. 
Monimientsin history, 262. 
Moods, 86-88. 
Morals, 280. 
Morbidness, 90. 
Morley, H., 349. 
Morose pupil, 58. 
Motivation, 228. 



Motor images, 46, 50, 52, 61, 114. 

Movement, 262. 

Moving pictures, 10. 

Miihlbach, Louisa, 225. 

Multiple type image theory, 53, 54. 

Muscle imagery. See Kinssthetic images. 

Muscular adroitness, 67. 

Museum, 262. 

Music, ability in, 51. 

as recreation, 74. 

adjusting key to weather, 91, 229. 

and history, 262. 

credit for, 376-380. 

meaning of, 381. 

supervising study of, 375 ff. 

Names, memory for, 50. 
Napoleon, sleep habits of, 73. 
Narcotics, 65. 

Narrative writing, 229-231. 
Neatness, 167, 293, 381. 
N.B., notice sign, 168, 298. 
Nerves, afferent, 68. 
Nervous exhaustion, 92. 
Nervousness, 81. 
Nervous system, 64. 

central, 68. 

peripheral, 68. 
Netschajeff, 45. 
Neurones, 68. 

Newark, New Jersey, 129, 384. 
News items, 224. 
Newspaper, 233, 236, 240, 263, 279, 360. 

editorials, 224. 

reporting, mental type of, 51. 
Newton, Massachusetts, 104, 105. 
Nitrogen in food, 67. 
Noise, 91. 

Norfolk, Virginia, 158. 
Normal schools, 95, 104, 106, Z15, 393. 
North Platte, Nebraska, 376. 
Notation, 295. 
Notebooks, 166, 184, 220. 

appearance of, 190-193, 393. 

cards, 185 ff. 

copying in, 201-203. 

kinds, 185-190. 

in literature, 356, 357. 

in sdenoe, 309 ff. 

maoila folders, 185 ff. 



428 



Index 



Note-taking, ii8, 123, 188^192, 193, 194. 

in history, 270. 

in literature, 356, 357. 

in textbook, 133. 

preparing for, in public speaking, 246, 247. 

too much, 184, 201, 271. 
Notice signs, 167 ff., 295. 
Novels, studying, 358-360. 

modem, 224, 243. 
Numbers, memory for, 50. 
Nutrition. See Eating; Food. 
Nuts, 66. 

Oakland City, Indiana, 265, fn. 

Oats, as food, 66. 

Objects, 46, sOi 52. 

Oblique outlines, 181. 

Observation in science, 311. 

Obs. as notice sign, 168. 

Occasional supervised study, 96, 159. 

Occupations, 55. 

Offidousness, loi. 

Oils, as food, 66. 

Olfactory images, 52. 

Opera, Italian, 90. 

Opinion, 25, 248. 

Opportunity, 89. 

Oranges, 69. 

Orchestra, 381. 

Orderliness, 82, 167, 293, 295. 

Organization, 119, 193, 202, 204, 205, 218, 

257. 258, 261, 263. 
Originality, S7, 9S» 381. 
Outlines, 24, 118, 156, 166, 171, 189. 

brace, 224. 

in history, 258, 259, 270. 

in literature 356, 357. 

interlacing, 183. 

overlapfdng, 184. 

paragraph, 178. 

parallel, 163, 179, 264. 

structure of, 179-184. 

use of, 177-184, 189, 193, 194, 205, 220, 
232, 234. 

vertical or serial, 181. 
Out-of-door sleeping, 73. 
Oxygen in foods, 67. 

Panama Exposition, indirect lighting at, 76. 
Paper slips, 202, 203. 



Paragraphing, 178, 201, 225. 

Parallel lines as notice signs, 167, 264. 

Parallel outlines, 182, 183. 

Parentheses, 167, 202. 

Parents: 

attitude of, toward pupils' moods, 87. 

codperation in dvic leagues, 285. 

in daily extra period, 157. 

in history dubs, 263. 

reports to, 59, 60. 

supervisbn, of examination prepaiatioiia« 
204. 
Parker, Gilbert, 250. 
Parker, S. C, 19, fn., 294. 
Partidples, 238. 
Parties, attending, 10, 92. 
Pascal, 301, 308. 
Pater, Walter, 349. 
Patron's leagues, 236, 28s* 
Peaches, 70. 
Peas, dried, as food, 66. 
Percentage, 296, 297. 
Perception, no, 296. 
Period, 262. 
Peristalsis, 67. 
Perseverance, 56, 63. 
Peter the Great, diet of, 69. 
Phibsophy, 360. 
Phonographs, 71. 
Phosphates, 67. 
Phosphorus in food, 67. 
Physical directors, 74. 
Physicians, 74. 
Physics, 62, iss, 165. 
Phsrsiological conditions of studying, 63, 64, 

74, 93. 
Pickwick, 349. 
Pictures, 125. 
Pipe, 65. 

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 99. 
Pius DC, diet of, 69. 
Playgrounds, 278. 
Pleasure, 85. 

Plenum system of ventilation, 8z. 
Poe, Edgar Allan, 64. 
Poetry: 

influence of climate on, 9a 

memorizing, 209-211, 367. 

pupils' preference for, 351. 

studying, 363-370. 



I 



Index 



429 



Poincai^, H., 54. 

Poole, Ernest, 225. 

Poole's "Index," 177. 

Pope, Alexander, 64. 

Popularity in high school, 89-91. 

Population, 4. 

Pork pie, 69. 

Portland, Oregon, 32. 

Posture, 83, 166. 

Potatoes, 69. 

Pottstown, Penn^lvania, 156-158, 389. 

Practice teaching, 106, 301. 

Praise, 85. See also Incentives; Rewards. 

Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, New York, 

291. 
Precision, 293. 

Predicate, 237. See also Grammar. 
Prefaces, 170. 
Preparation, 60, 118, 119, 123, 296. See 

a/50 Vacant periods; Assignmoits. 
Pretzels, 70. 

Principal, 97, 98, 100, loi, 108, 1 16-126. 
Problems : 

assignments of, 145 ff. 

discovery of, 21, 133, 147, 258. 

in chemistry, 310. 

in civics, 278-280. 

in literature, 358, 359, 363, 365. 

in mathematics, 293, 294, 295. 

training pupil to attack, 29, 131, 132, 

iSS. 
Procrastination, 119. 

Program making, 250, 381. 
Program, of studies. See also Subject 
matter. 

curriculum, 16. 

in geometry, 290. 

in science, 305. 
Progress, 33, 34. See Pupils' progress. 
Promptness, 55, 60. 
Pronimdation, 52, 318, 330, 331. 
Prose, 209-211. 
Proteins, 66. 
Prunes, 70. 

Psychological conditions of studying, 93 ff. 
Psychobgy, 21, 27, 86. 
Public speaJdng, 178, 239, 243-247. 
Puebb, Colorado, 32, 389. 
Punctuality, 123. 
Punctuation, 335. 



Pupil, high school : 
attitude toward, 23, 27, 87. 
brilliant, 21, 58, 150, 267. 
classification of, 55-61. 
conversation of, 239-243. 
difficulties of, 109, no, in, 113, 114, 

"S. 
directing study of. See Supervised 

study, 
financially poor, 68, 88. 
love affairs, 87. 
moods, 86. 
preparation by, 26, 29, 60, 118, 119, 123, 

296. 
progress of, 20, 21, 34, 40-49, 60, 61, 106, 

115, 130, 150. 
studjdng, conditions of, 63, 64, 74, 93 ff. 
studjdng, methods of, 163-219, 258. 
weak, 99, 155, 157 ff. 
Puzzles, 303. 

Pyle, W. H., quoted on memory, 45, 46. 
on mental record, 57, 58. 

Quadrivium, 25. 
Quartets, 381. 
Queed, 349, 359- 

Questioning and questions, 21, 27, 128, 
170, 193, 205. 

Raisins, 69, 70. 
Raphael, diet of, 69. 
Reader's guide, 177. 
Reading. See also Literature. 

aloud, 194. 

artistic, 249, 250, 370. 

broader course in, 353-356. 

first, of asagnment,,i22, 135, 193, 359. 

in history, 262. 

in literature, 3S3-3S6, 357. 

in science, 311. 

interest in, 199. 

light for, 77-79. 

method of, 171, 193, 194. 

note-taking, 167, 200-303, 356 ff. 

posture iD« 76. 

rapid, 84, 93, 201. 

reference, 21, 118, 170, 200, 259. 

supplementary, 20, 26, 166, 199-203, 2og^ 
218, 220, 357. 
Reasoning. See Thinking. 



430 



Index 



\ 



Reavis, W. C, 117-iaa 
Rebuttal, 248. 
Recall, 212, 213. 
Recitation, 19, 20. 

codperative, 20, 27. 

distractions in, 92, 128, 139, 130-133, 
147, 156, 160. 

early forms of, 31. 

in civics, 147, 278-281. 

in history, 258, 272, 273. 

in mathematics, 303. 
Reciting, vs, studying, 126, 132, 156, 
160. 

to some one while studying, 194, 258, 

259. 
Records, school, 106, 107, 113, 114, 152. 
Recreation, 64, 65, 73, 74, 92, 135, 277 flf. 

See also Athletics; Amusements. 
Reeve, W. D., 300 flE. 
Reforms, 229. 

Reference work, 21, 118, 122, 125, 142, 166, 
170, 171, 172-177. 

card for, 186. 

filing, 186 ff., i93» i9St 196, 197. 

numerals in, 168. 
Reflection, 258. See also Thinking. 
Reliability, 65. 
Religion and climate, 91. 
Renaissance, 264. 
Repeaters, 136, 137. 
Reports, 21, 166. 

appearance of finished, 198, 199. 

how to make, 195-199. 

ignorance of pupils making, 30. 

in dvics, 280. 

in history, 263, 264. 

in literature, 356, 359, 363. 

use of, 86, 220. 
Resentful pupil, 58. 
Responsibility, 55, 58, 62, 65, 131. 
Retardation and retards, 34, 46-49, 99, 

128, 136, 150, 159. 
Reviews, 21, 86, 99, 103, 118, 121, 123, 
125, 158, 168, 178, 181, 184, 205, 219, 
233. 267-270, 297 ff. 
Revision, 251. 
Rewards, 85, 300. 
Rice pudding, 70. 

Richmond, Virginia, 159, 281-286, 296, 
297, 341 ff., 399 ff. 



Rickard, G. E., 54, 172, 193, 259, 365, 391, 

393 ff. 
Ridicule, 88. 
Rivers, 141. 
Roads, 278. 

Rochester, New York, 154. 
Rossetti, 210. 
Rote memory, 211. 
Rousseau, 349. 
Routine, daily, 71, 85, 88. 
Rowing, 73. 

Rugs in bedchamber, 73. 
Running, 74, 92. 
Rural life, 229, 278 ff. 
Russian, 91. 
Rynearson, W. £., 99, 103. 

Sacramento, California, 26. 
Sailing, 73. 
Schiller, 62. 
Scholarship, 119, 288. 
School: 

administration, 12, 25-29. 

buildings, 75-83. 

day, 26, 98, 129. 
> feeding, 69, 70. 

hygiene, 93. See Studying, conditions of. 

luncheons, 70. 

management, 12, 34, 89. 

reports, 59, 60, 152. 
Science, general vs, special, 20S, 305, 

306. 
Sciences, 24. 

method of stud3dng, 121, 132, 134, 172, 
182, 184, 193, 208, 229, 290, 307-317. 

pupils' ability in, 46, 48, 86. 

stated conferences in, 99. 
Scotland, 79. 
Scott, Walter, 69, 225. 
Scrapbook in history, 262. 
Secretion, 67. 
Self-confidence, 29. 
Self-pity, 90. 
Sensations, 68. 
Sensitiveness, 92. 
Sensitive pupil, 58. 
Sex, 33, 45-49» 61, 87, 88, 291. 
Shades, window, 76. 
ShaU and toitf, 237. 
Shelley, 366. 



Index 



431 



Sherlock Holmes, 349, 36a 
Shideler, J. W., Supt., 379. 
Shiftlessness, 55. 
Shrewdness, 95. 
Shurman, President, 71. 
Signs wrong, 294, 295. 
" Silas Mamer," 156. 
Sincerity, 94. 
Skating, 73. 

Skill, 68, 8s, 227, 2S9, 289. 
Skinner, M. M., 335. 
Slang, 237. 
Sleep, 19, 26, 64, 6s, 7i-73- 

bedchamber, 72, 73. 

out of doors, 73. 

sleeping hoods, 73. 

sleeping porches, 73. 

sign of fatigue, 92. 
Sluggishness, 69, 79. 
Smell, images of, 52. 
Smith, C. A., 350, 3S1. 
Smith, £. £., 1 59, 268, 281-286, 341 ff ., 399 ff . 
Smith, Sydney, 200. 
Smoking, 6s. 
Snedden, David, 287 ff. 
Social education, 2, 19, 195. 
Social efficiency, 147, 215. 
Social life, 9-11, 21, 26, 42, 56, s8, 71, 88- 

90, 92, no, 114, 115. 
Society, 214. 
Soda fountain, 65. 
Sound, 307. 
Soup, bean, 70. 
Space relations, no, 295. 
Spanish, 91, 318, 341 ff. 
Spaulding, Supt., 104. 
Speaking: 

after dinner, 243 ff . 

correct, 228. 
" Spectator, The," 349. 
Speed and accuracy, 38, 189, 381. 
Spelling, 238. 
Spinal cord, 68. 
Spinsters, 4. 
St. Louis, Missouri, 32. 
Stage setting, 249. 
Starch, William, 320, 321. 
Start, quick, 83, 122, 151, 155. 
Steam heat, 80. 
Steinmetz, 64. 



Stenography, i6s* 

Stimulants, 6s, 314. 

Stimuli, 21, 24, 62, 64, 6s, 70, 8s, 90, 9a, 

III, 129, 170, 207, 289. 
Strauss, Ridiard, 90. 
Strayer, G. D., 141. 
Stubborn pupil, s8. 
Student government, 97. 
Studjdng : 

alone, 123, 163. 

abud, 213. 

conditions of, 19, 20, 23, 62, 63, 64, 74, 

75, 83, 93. 
difficulties in, 24, 27, 63, 109, in, iis, 

116, 271, 293. 
group, 21. 
hindrances to, 19, 21, 90, 92, 98, xis, 

120, I2S, 166. 
meaning of, 19, 133. 
methods of, 21, 60, 98, 116--126, 132, 

161-219, 220, 290. 
moods in, 86-91. 
period, 19, 20, 26, 96, 97, 127, 129, 132, 

133, 140-156, 166-219, 260, 273-27S. 
program, 21, 96, 117-120, 122, 12s, 161, 

163. 
recreation and, 73* 74* 92, i3S, 277 ff. 
room, 19, 82, 83, 91, I2S, 203. 
sleep and, 71-73. 
speed and, 12s. 
suggestion of, 82. 
vs. redting, 126, 132. 
waste in, 18, 30, 63, in, iss* 
Study at home, s, 6, 8, 10, 19, 23, 24, 2s, 

26, 87, 119, 125, 127, 130, 131, 136, 

149, iSS, 163, 226. 
Study, coach, 27, 103, 104, no, 11$. 

tools, 122, 166 ff., i8s, 220. 
Style, 227, 231, 236. 

Subject and predicate, 237. See Grammar. 
Subject matter, 2, 27, 30, 287. 
attacking new, 99. 
individualized, 24. 
modem, n, is, 133. 
organization of, 140 ff. 
preferences for, 114, iis, 119. 
progress in, S9, 60. 
psychology of, 21, 27 . 
pupils' ability in, 39-44. 
' teacher and, 97, 115. 



432 



Index 




Subject matter, unit of instruction, 140 S. 

Subtraction, 294. 

Success, 85, 95* 123* 

Suffrage, 208. 

Sugar, 66. 

Summarizing, 166, 168-170, 171, 193, 205, 

220, 270. 
Sunshine, 67. 
Superintendents, 95. 
Supervised study, 12, 19, 32. 

alternate daily periods, 158, 159. 

assignments, 143-153. 

cost of, 27, 28, 137. 

daily extra period, 156-158. 

delayed group plan, 115, 116. 

divided period, 128-133. 

double period, 133-140, 140-156. 

general directions in, 116-126, 394-397* 

in Richmond, Virginia, 399 ff . 

meaning of, 13, 15, 20, 22, 24, 25, 29, 93, 
145, 161, 164. 

misconceptions about, 17, 23, 97. 

occasional, 127, 159. 

organization of, general, 96-126. 

results of, 383-398. 

schedule of, 131, 148, 154. 

subject, 96, 127-160. 

technic of study taught, 166-219. 
Surve3^, 25, 55. 
Swedish, 91. 
Swimming, 73. 

S3rmpathy, 87, 100, 103, 136. 
Synthesb, 260, 261. 

Tablets in history, 262. 
Tact, 87, 100, loi. III. 
Tactual images, 46, 52. 
Talking over lessons, 121, 125. 
Tarts, 69. 
Tea, 65. 
Teacher: 

advisors, 55. 

assignments and, 143-153, 156 ff. 

conferences and, 98-103. 

experienced, 95. 

extra, 128, 153. 

first school, 95. 

main duty of, 13, 23, 19, 20, 23, 61, 87, 

89, 96, 132. 
mathematics and, 288, 292. 



Teacher, personality of, 26, 109, 136. 

preparation of, 140 ff., 283, 39a ff. 

pupil criticizing, no. 

recording pupils' difficulties, 113, 114. 

speaking correctly, 223, 226. 

study period, 97, 116, 117, 118, 120, 128^ 
129, 130, 132, i34» 188. 

training of, 27, 88, 93, 95. 

transfer cards, 106-108. 

unassigned, 103-108, 115, laS. 
Teaching: 

cause of fatigue, 22. 

methods of, 22, 95, 297. 

training of teachers, 115. 
Telephones, 208. 

Temperament See Dispositioiis. 
Temperature, 19, 81. 
Tennis, 73, 74. 
Tenses, 238. 
Terminology, 16. 
Tesla, 308. 

Testing, mental, 60, 115, 158. 
Textbook, 20, 122, 146, 166-171, 178^ 
199, 220, 224, 258, 278, 288, 290, 294, 
Theater, 10, 92. 

Themes, 21, 24, 26, 139, 227-229. 
Thinking, 14, 29, 30, 9S1 99f "8. 124, 132, 
213-218, 220. 

cramming and, 205. 

debating and, 248. 

geometry, 289, 290. 

grammar and, 224. 

history and, 264. 

mathematics and, 302. 

outing and, 179, 181. 

process, 215-218. 

science and, 305, 31 x. 

style and, 228. 

summarizing, 169. 
Thomdike, £. L., 14, 34. 

on image types, 53, 54. 

quoted on rate and amount of work, 35- 

38. 
Three-cent meals, 70. 

Timid pupil, 58. 

Tissue-buil(Ung foods, 66. 

Toast master, 244. 

Tobacco, 65. 

Tomato sauce, 70. 

Topic sentence, 181, 261, 266, 



Index 



433 



Topics, I20, 121, 132, 141, 14s ff. 

Tout, W., Supt., 376. 

Track, 73, 74. 89. 

Tradition, 25. 

Translating, 122, 132, 193, 194, 219, 287, 

335- 
Transportation, 277 ff. 

Travel, 229. 

Trenton, New Jersey, 384. 

Trigonometry, 291. 

Trivium, 25. 

Trustworthiness, 27, 90, iii. 

Twin Falls, Idaho, 123-125. 

Ugliness, 89. 

Unassigned lesson period, 99, 128. 
Unassigned teacher, 103, 104-108, 115. 
Underscoring, 121, 166 ff., 172, 193, 194, 

213, 220, 266. 
Understanding, 122, 123, 124, 125, 249. 
Unit, of instruction, 16, 140, 142, 262. 

of recitation, 141, 142. 

of study, 141, 142. 

of subject matter, 30. 
Unity, 238. 
Unpopularity, 70. 
Urbana, Illinois, 39 ff . 
Utilities, 280. 

Vacant periods, 26, 96, 152, 157. 

Vacation school, delayed plan in, 116. 

Vagueness, 296, 309. 

Vail, Theodore N., 208. 

Van Dyke, Henry, 225, 250, 349. 

Variety, 84. 

Vegetables, 66, 67, 69. 

Vegetarianism, 67. 

Venison, 69. 

Ventilation, 73, 79, 80, 81, 125. 

Verbal-acoustic image types, 52. 

Verbal-motor images, 52. 

Verbal-speech-motor images, 52, 53. 

Verbal-tactile images, 52. 

Verbal-visual image types, 52. 

Vertical outlines, 181. 

A^dous puiul, 5& 



Visual images, 46, 49, 50, 52, 61, no, 114, 

294. 
Vocabulary, 122, 211, 212. 
Vocational education, 34, 290. 
Vocational guidance, 55, 56. 
Vocational interests, 56. 
Vocational mathematics, 290. 
Voice, 243. 

Volimtary control, 68. 
Vost and Atwater, 66. 
V.V.»sEyes,"3S9. 



<« 



Wagner, Richard, 90. 
Walls, cobr of, in school, 76. 
Walking, 73, 74- 
Wanderlust, 87. 

Waste in school work, 34, 63, 71, 83, in. 
Water, 69, 306, 312. 
Waterloo, 225. 
Wayland, 252, 264. 
Wealth, 277 ff. 
Weather, 90, 91, 313. 
Webb, H. E., 297 ff., 384. 
White, E. A., 28. 
Whole method, 209, 211. 
Wiener, William, 129, 384. 
Wilder, Marshall P., 64. 
\^ill, 8s, 121. 
WUl and shaU, 237- 
Williams, Miss Dora, 195, fn. 
'^Ison, Woodrow, 349. 
^^dows, 73, 75, 125. 
)^ne, 69. 

Woodberry, G. E., 364. 
Word t3rpes, 52. 

Words, memory for, 50, 51, 52. 
Words, use of, 231. 
Wordsworth, 62, 90, 365, 366. 
Work, 34, 64, 74, 92, 306. 
Worry, 67, 91. 

Writing, 53, 167, 189, 190, 213, 224, 235, 
259, 260. 

Yachting, 73. 

2^1a, £., 54. 



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